RURAL SCHOOL SURVEY 
of NEW YORK STATE 




Class 
Book. 






!htN»__. 



CiJPXRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



JOINT COMMITTEE ON RURAL 
SCHOOLS 

State Grange 

G. W. DUNN MRS. F. GATES 

G. C. McNINCH 

Department of Education 

F. B. GILBERT R. P. SNYDER 

G. M. WILEY 

Dairymen's League 

E. R. EASTMAN, Secretary ALBERT MANNING 

N. F. WEBB 

Farm Bureau Federation 
H. c. Mckenzie, vice-chairman w. g. mcintosh 

C. S. POST H. G. REED 

State College of Agriculture 

J. E. BUTTERWORTH P. J. KRUSE 

G. A. WORKS, Chairman 

Home Bureau Federation 

MRS. M. E. ARMSTRONG MRS. A. E. BRIGDEN 

MRS. EDWARD YOUNG 

State Teachers^ Association 

J. D. JONES MYRTLE E. MacDONALD 

W. E. PIERCE 



Committee on Direction 

G. A. WORKS, Director 

MRS. A. E. BRIGDEN, Assistant Director 

G. M. WILEY, Assistant Director 



RURAL SCHOOL SURVEY 
of NEW YORK STATE 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



By 
THEODORE H. EATON 

PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



Ithaca, New York 
1922 






V.G^° 



Copyright, 1922, by 
Theodore H. Eaton 



WM-F. FELL CO. PRINTERS 
PHILADELPHIA 



C1AG89008 

OCI 25 '22 



VlfW 



FOREWORD 

UNDER the education law of New York State schools in dis- 
tricts of less than 4,500 population are rural. In the organ- 
ization of this phase of the survey it was decided to limit the 
study of vocational education to schools that were in rural districts 
in the legal sense. It is true that there are departments of voca- 
tional agriculture and homemaking in larger centers that are serving 
young people from the farms, but the facts that have been secured 
in this study undoubtedly give a fair picture of the conditions in the 
state. Besides the departments of vocational agriculture and home- 
making that have been established in the high schools there are six 
special state schools all of which are teaching agriculture and some 
of them are giving work in homemaking. Because of their intimate 
relation to farm life five of these schools have been included in this 
study. In this report only the instructional work of these schools 
is treated. The administrative problems that they present are 
discussed in the section of the survey dealing with "administration 
and supervision." 

It is believed that this is the most comprehensive study that has 
thus far been made of a state's efforts to meet the needs of rural 
communities for vocational education. As New York was one of 
the pioneer states in making provision for state aid to stimulate the 
development of vocational education, the results of this inquiry 
should be of value not only to those who are in charge of the devel- 
opment of vocational education in New York, but it should be help- 
ful to those directing similar work in other states. The philosophy 
that is involved in the discussion of problems studied appeals to the 
director as being sound. 

This study was prepared by Dr. T. H. Eaton under the general 
direction of Dr. W. C. Bagley. The funds for conducting this study 
and for printing this report were provided by the Commonwealth 
Fund. A complete list of the reports will be found at the back of 
this volume. 

Geo. a. Works, Director. 



PREFACE 

EVERY assistance has been rendered to the surveyor by the 
Division of Vocational and Extension Education at the in- 
stance of the director, Mr. L. A. Wilson. All the resources 
of the Division in the way of records and publications have been 
freely opened. 

For painstaking assistance in the matter of securing depart- 
mental data, in suggesting new sources of possible data, in answer- 
ing questions, explaining policies, pointing out weaknesses and 
indicating strength, particular acknowledgment is due the following 
in their several fields : 

Mr. Arthur K. Getman, Specialist in Agricultural Education. 
Mr. A. P. Williams, Assistant in Agricultural Education. 
Mr. W. J. Weaver, Assistant in Agricultural Education. 
Miss M. E. Van Lieuw, Specialist in Homemaking Education. 
Miss T. E. Kaufifmann, Assistant in Homemaking Education. 
Mr. R. H. Rodgers, Specialist in Industrial Education. 
Mr. R. P. Snyder, Specialist in Junior Extension Education. 

For services rendered in the observation of schools and for careful 
report of such observation acknowledgment is due the following : 

Prof. F. W. Lathrop, of Minnesota, high school agriculture. 

Mr. W. W. Reitz, high school agriculture. 

Miss Helen Estabrook, of Morrisville, high school homemaking. 

Mrs. E. D. Bentley, high school homemaking. 

Mrs. L. V. Walker, high school homemaking. 

For suggestive criticism of plans of procedure particular acknowl- 
edgment is due to: 

Prof. G. A. Works, Cornell. 
Prof. W. C. Bagley, Columbia. 

7 



For data of high schools other than agricultural and for assistance 
in the evaluation of teaching to: 

Prof. E. N. Ferriss, Cornell. 

For assistance in the evaluation of data of homemaking to: 
Prof. Cora E. Binzel, Cornell. 

For the most cordial cooperation in making available for study 
the teaching resources of the state schools of agriculture and home- 
making to: 

Director H. B. Knapp, of Cobleskill. 
Director I. M. Charlton, of Morrisville. 

Last and not least the surveyor acknowledges gratitude for 
untiring and conscientious work in the summarization and tabula- 
tion of data from all sorts of sources and from diverse forms of 
record to: 

Miss Ina M. Cornish, of Ithaca. 

But without the cooperation of the teachers of agriculture and 
homemaking and their pupils in the high schools, their sacrifice of 
time and effort to meet the requirements of an exacting and burden- 
some inquiry, the chief value of the study would have been lost. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAP. PAGE 

I. Administration 13 

The Legal Basis 13 

State Aid for Vocational Schools 14 

Modifications of the Original Plan 16 

Allotments 17 

The School Year 18 

Minimum Enrolment 18 

Administrative Control 19 

Homemaking 20 

Agriculture 21 

Organization of Schools 24 

Intermediate Schools 25 

High School Departments of Agriculture 27 

Regulations and Policy 27 

Qualifications of Teachers 30 

Curricula 31 

Schedule 33 

Course of Study and Teaching Plans 34 

"Home Projects" 34 

Rooms 36 

Equipment 37 

Library 43 

Summer Work of the Teacher 44 

The Teacher of Agriculture as Principal 45 

High School Departments of Homemaking 47 

Minimum Enrolment 48 

Schedule 48 

Advisory Board 49 

Rooms 50 

Equipment 50 

Qualifications of Teachers 51 

Curriculum 52 

H. Aims of TEACfflNG in Agriculture 55 

State Formulations 55 

Formulations of Teachers 59 

HI. Schools Teaching Agriculture 64 

Distribution 64 

Mortality 67 

Accessibility 70 

9 



CHAP. PAGE 

IV. The Teaching of Agriculture 71 

Distribution of Lessons 71 

Size of Classes 72 

Holding Power 75 

Arrangement and Promptness 75 

Attitude of Pupils 76 

Proportion of Pupils Kept Busy 77 

Pupil Activity 78 

Assignments 78 

Use of Texts 80 

Planning 80 

Preparation of Pupils 81 

Types of Lessons and Procedures 81 

Impressions of Teachers 85 

Ratings 86 

Teaching of Skills 87 

Modifications of Course 92 

Teaching of Technology 93 

Teaching of Social Abilities 95 

Consideration of Risks 98 

V. Teachers of Agriculture 101 

Classes 101 

Salaries 101 

Qualifications 103 

Schooling 103 

Professional Studies 104 

Teaching Experience 105 

Technical Studies 105 

Farm Experience 110 

Studies in Social Science 112 

Studies in Physical and Biological Science 113 

Desirable Requirements 116 

Teachers' Evaluations of Preparation 118 

Reported Deficiencies 119 

Stability and Tenure 123 

Schedule 128 

VI. Enrolment — Agriculture 130 

Age and Grades 131 

Occupations of Parents 132 

Farm Experience 133 

Choice of Vocation 135 

Intention to Go To College 137 

lO 



CHAP. PAGE 

Intention to Complete Course 140 

Reasons for Choice of Course 141 

Type of Pupil 141 

Record of Matriculants 142 

VII. Equipment 144 

By Studies 145 

Rooms 147 

Merits and Deficiencies 148 

VIII. Supervised Practice 149 

Recorded "Projects" 150 

" Project " Supervision 155 

Completed "Projects" 158 

IX. Content of the Course 160 

Developments 160 

Illustrative Studies 166 

(a) Farm Crops and Soils 166 

(b) Poultry Husbandry 174 

(c) Farm Shop Work 180 

Distribution of Time 184 

(a) Farm Crops and Soils 185 

(b) Poultry Husbandry 186 

(c) Farm Shop Work 186 

Texts and References 187 

X. Aims of Teaching in Homemaking 189 

State Formulations 189 

Formulations of Teachers 191 

XL Schools Teaching Homemaking 192 

Distribution 192 

MortaHty 195 

XII. The Teaching of Homemaking 197 

Distribution of Lessons 197 

Dominance of Cooking and Sewing 198 

Breaking of Development 199 

Aims of Lessons 202 

Attitude of Pupils 203 

Activity of Pupils 204 

Arrangements and Promptness 204 

Assignments 205 

Planning 205 

Preparation of Pupils 206 

System and Unity 206 

Types of Lessons and Procedures 206 

Ratings 209 

II 



CHAP. PAGE 

Impressions of Teachers 210 

Teaching of Skills 212 

Provision for Particular Groups of Skills 214 

Departures from the Syllabus 217 

Teaching of Technology 217 

Experience in Buying 220 

Employment 220 

Cooperation 222 

Exemptions 222 

Study of Community 224 

Suggestions of Teachers 224 

XIII. Teachers of Homemaking 226 

Schooling 226 

Teaching Experience 227 

Professional Studies 227 

Technical Studies 227 

Studies in the Sciences 229 

Reported Deficiencies 229 

Teachers' Evaluations of Preparation 230 

Professional Improvement 232 

Suggestions of Teachers 233 

Teaching Load 234 

Salaries 235 

XIV. Emrolment — Homemaking 237 

Size of Classes 238 

Occupations of Parents 238 

Upbringing 239 

Choice of Vocation 240 

Intention to Go to College 240 

Reasons for Choice of Homemaking 241 

XV. Equipment — Homemaking 242 

Types and Deficiencies 242 

XVI. Reaching the Girls 247 

XVII. Content of the Course 250 

The Syllabus 250 

XVIII. Brief Summary of Recommendations 266 

XIX. Teaching of Agriculture in State Schools 272 

XX. Teaching of Homemaking in State Schools 282 

XXI. Curricula in the State Schools — Agriculture 285 

XXII. Curricula in the State Schools — Homemaking 290 



12 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

CHAPTER I 
ADMINISTRATION 

The Legal Basis 

VOCATIONAL Education in public schools in political units 
of less than 4,500 population is conducted under Article 
XXII of the State education law. The article deals with 
"general industrial schools, unit trade and technical schools, part- 
time or continuation schools, practical arts or homemaking schools, 
and schools of agriculture, mechanic arts and homemaking.^ ^ The 
word "school" as defined in the article includes "any department 
or course of instruction established and maintained in a public 
school for any of the purposes specified in the article." 

Schools in operation in 1920-21 in units of less than 4,500 popula- 
tion fall under the head of general industrial schools, two in number, 
schools of agriculture and homemaking, forty-three in number, 
schools of agriculture, twenty-three in number, and schools of 
homemaking, thirteen in number. All eighty-four institutions are 
maintaining courses of instruction in vocational subjects under 
Article XXII. 

The authorization of those schools is found in the following state- 
ment: 

"The board of education of any union free school district shall 

. . . establish, acquire and maintain general industrial 
schools, . . . schools of agriculture . . . and homemak- 
ing . . . whenever such schools shall be authorized by a dis- 
trict meeting. The trustees or board of trustees of a common 
school district may establish a school or a course in agriculture, 
. . . and homemaking, when authorized by a district meeting. 

13 



"The board of education ... is vested with the same 
power and authority over the management, supervision and control 
of such schools and the teachers or instructors employed therein as 
such board now has over the schools and teachers under their charge. 
Such boards of education shall also have full power and authority: 

"1. To employ competent teachers or instructors, 

*' 2. To provide proper courses of study, 

"3. To purchase or acquire sites and grounds and to purchase, 

acquire, lease or construct, and to repair suitable shops or 

buildings and to properly equip the same, 
"4. To purchase necessary machinery, tools, apparatus and 

supplies. 

''The board of education shall appoint an advisory board of five 
members representing the local trades, industries and occupations. 

. . . It shall be the duty of such advisory board to counsel 
with and advise the board of education in relation to the powers 
and duties vested in such board" under the article. 

State Aid For Such Schools 

"The Commissioner of Education in the annual apportionment 
of the state school moneys shall apportion therefrom to each . . . 
school district for each general industrial school; school of 
agriculture . . . and homemaking, maintained therein for 
thirty-six weeks during the school year, and employing one teacher 
whose work is devoted exclusively to such school, and such number 
of pupils as may be required by the Commissioner of Education 
having an enrolment and maintaining an organization and course of 
study and conducted in a manner approved by him, a sum equal to 
two-thirds of the salary paid to such teacher. Such teacher may 
be employed for the entire year, and during the time that the said 
school is not open shall be engaged in performing such educational 
services as may be required by the board of education or trustees, 
under regulations adopted by the Commissioner of Education. 
Where a contract is made with a teacher for the entire year and 
such teacher is employed for such period, as herein provided, the 
Commissioner of Education shall make an additional apportion- 
ment to such . . . district of the sum of two hundred dollars. 

14 



But the total amount apportioned in each year on account of such 
teacher shall not exceed one thousa?td dollar s.^^ 

"The Commissioner of Education shall also make an additional 
apportionment . . . for each additional teacher employed in 
the schools mentioned ... for thirty-six weeks during the 
school year, a sum equal to one-half the salary paid to each such 
additional teacher, but not exceeding one thousand dollars for each 
teacher." 

"Any person employed as teacher as provided herein may serve 
as principal of the school in which the said industrial . . . 
school or course, or school or course of agriculture, . . . and 
homemaking is maintained." 

"All moneys apportioned by the Commissioner of Education for 
schools under this article shall be used exclusively for the payment 
of the salaries of t eachers employed in such schools in the . . . 
district to which such moneys are apportioned." 

"The board of education or trustees of each school district which 
maintains a general industrial school . . . school of agricul- 
ture, . . . and homemaking, . . . shall include in its 
estimate of expenses pursuant to the provisions of this chapter the 
amount that will be required to maintain such schools after apply- 
ing toward the maintenance thereof the amount apportioned 
therefor by the Commissioner of Education. Such amount shall 
thereafter be levied, assessed and raised by tax upon the taxable 
property of . . . the district at the time and in the manner 
that other taxes for school purposes are raised in such . . . 
district." 

Criticisms. — Excellent as is the poUcy of State aid as adminis- 
tered by the Division of Vocational and Extension Education in 
attempting to extend opportunity to those communities which can 
most profit by it, there are two distinct weaknesses in the present 
regulation. The first is that communities are encouraged to tax 
themselves for the support of vocational teaching on the basis of the 
margin necessary to minimal cost of inauguration and upkeep over 
and above what the state and federal funds will provide. Or, they 
figure first how much they can get from the state, then how much 
they must "put up" in addition. If the factors of ability to pay 

IS 



and willingness to pay are to control in the allotment of aid, the 
position should be reversed. First just what the community can 
pay and will do for the support of vocational education should be 
determined. On the basis of that result the State should come in 
to equalize burden, to reward sacrifice and penalize stinginess. 
The poor and the earnestly willing community should receive large 
aid to enable the fullest possible opportunity for its children, the 
rich and penurious community no aid. At present the two are on 
an equal basis with respect to allotment. 

The second weakness, to which the speciaHst in agricultural edu- 
cation has made emphatic reference in suggestions offered at the 
request of the surveyor for strengthening the administration of the 
work, is the inequitable burden placed upon the village or union 
free school district which establishes vocational work in agriculture. 
The work is chiefly beneficial, in a direct and immediate sense, to 
pupils from farms, that is, in many cases to those from districts 
which are not taxed directly for the support of the school. The 
development of vocational work in appropriate centers is often 
hindered by the fact. Though in the long run village support of 
agricultural instruction, in the small degree to which it is necessary 
now, may be sound economy and is certainly in accord with sound 
social policy and Christian ethics, yet it is the exceptional taxpayer 
who can see it so. A larger unit of school taxation and adminis- 
tration would tend to equalize financial burdens and to admit to 
participation in control those most immediately interested in 
vocational work in agriculture, namely, the farmers of the outlying 
districts. 

Modifications of Original Plan. — The acceptance by the 
State legislature, February 23, 1917, of "all the provisions and 
benefits" of the Federal Act for Vocational Education modifies the 
State legislation in two ways: (1) By specifying the aim of vocational 
education to be preparation for ''useful employment" in pursuits 
of industry, agriculture, and homemaking; and (2) by making 
additional sums available for the payment of salaries of teachers in 
industrial and agricultural work in other than the intermediate 
schools, for the training of teachers of industrial, agricultural, and 

i6 



homemaking courses, and for the supervision of vocational schools 
under all three categories. 

The original law has been modified with respect to the schools 
included above on several occasions, chiefly with regard to (1) the 
amount of State aid, (2) the length of the school year, (3) the mini- 
mum enrolment necessary to reimbursement through State aid, 
and (4) the creation of advisory boards. 

Allotments. — The education law in 1910 allotted $500 of State 
aid for the first strictly vocational teacher in any school and $200 
for each additional teacher, the use of such moneys being limited 
only to maintenance of the approved schools. The allotment in 
1913 became two-thirds of the salary of the first teacher up to 
$1,000 as at present; the additional allotment of $200 for teachers 
employed the full year, as at present, was added and the aid for the 
second teacher employed made one-third of the salary paid. The 
enactment making use of aid applicable solely to salaries of teachers, 
then became operative. In 1919 the allowance for the second 
teacher employed was increased to the present standard. 

The present allowance, then, in the case of homemaking teachers 
is two-thirds the salary paid, when such teacher is the sole or first 
teacher of vocational subjects in a school, one-half the salary in 
case she is a second teacher, in no case exceeding $1,000 per teacher. 
The same regulations hold with respect to vocational teachers in 
industry and agriculture, with an additional allotment from State 
funds of $200 each for agricultural teachers, all of whom are em- 
ployed for the full year. In no case is the total allotment for each 
teacher in excess of $1,000. In addition Federal funds are avail- 
able for aid in industrial and agricultural courses, not including the 
intermediate schools, again applicable to salaries only. The follow- 
ing principle is used in allotment. When the full State quota of 
$1,000 per teacher is used in paying the salary of a teacher. Federal 
funds will be used to match the locally raised dollar up to $200. 
When the local expense per teacher goes beyond that sum, two 
dollars of Federal funds for each additional locally raised dollar are 
allowed. To illustrate : A local board employs a teacher of agricul- 
ture for the full year at a salary of $1,300. The local tax supplies 
$366.67, the State grants reimbursement of $733.33 plus $200 for 
2 17 



the summer employment. No Federal funds are used. If the 
salary be increased to $1,400; local taxes supply $200; Federal 
funds, $200; the State, $800 plus $200— the full maximum. At 
$1,500, local taxes supply $233.33, Federal funds $266.67, the State 
$800 plus $200. Thus a community can as cheaply ofTer a salary 
of $1,900 as one of $1,300, with the chances of securing a competent 
teacher greatly increased. In that case the local tax comes to 
$366.67, the Federal allotment to $533.33, and the State allotment 
to $800 plus $200. In 1920-21 no teacher of agriculture received 
less than $1,600, so that Federal funds entered in all cases other 
than those of intermediate schools.^ In 1920-21 the median cost 
for agricultural teachers was to communities $400; to the Federal 
government, $600; to the State, $1,000. Thus the cost to a district 
for a college trained and professionally equipped man teacher or 
principal of the high school under the vocational organization was 
little more than half the salary of an elementary-school teacher in a 
one-room school. It is often cheaper for a rural community to 
maintain a vocational department, wherein local needs and resources 
are controlling factors, than to maintain purely general or college 
preparatory curricula, wherein such are largely ignored. Certainly 
very little in the way of financial burden is imposed upon the rural 
community which desires to increase the opportunities of its sons 
and daughters in high school through vocational teaching. 

School Year 
Under the original law the minimum length of school year was 
set at thirty-eight weeks. In 1913 that was reduced to thirty-six 
weeks, the present standard. 

Minimum Enrolment 

The original law set a standard for vocational courses of a mini- 
mum of twenty-five pupils. Many small rural communities, 
wherein the work was particularly appropriate, were unable to meet 

* Intermediate schools, because they are giving instruction designed to meet 
the needs of pupils under 14 years of age, are ineligible to Federal aid. The 
handicap in selection of a principal is indicated in the section dealing with 
teachers. 

i8 



this requirement, and of those that did quahfy, some did so by- 
resort to "stuffing" the enrolment by putting girls into the agricul- 
tural course and village boys and boys interested in nothing in 
particular that the school provided. In 1913 the minimum was 
reduced to fifteen. In 1919 the enrolment minimum was left to the 
discretion of the Commissioner of Education. At present, in 
execution it is set tentatively at twelve pupils, or the reasonable 
prospect of twelve, in each course offered. 

Advisory Board 

Not until 1919 was the requirement set that communities under 
4,500 in population must appoint an advisory board. The words of 
the enactment, ''local industries," have been interpreted to mean 
homemaking occupations in the case of homemaking courses, farm- 
ing occupations in the case of agriculture. Advisory boards of 
women are established in the case of a majority of the homemaking 
departments in rural districts supporting vocational schools, and 
boards of farmers in all but two cases with agricultural departments. 
The figures reported are given in sections dealing with teachers and 
their professional improvement. 

In the reports later given upon the yearly increase in number of 
schools, and the median yearly enrolments in homemaking and 
agriculture the effect of the changed standards of enrolment and 
the increasing allotment in State aid is apparent. In the case of 
teachers' salaries the influence of the last is plainly evident. It 
accounts, in part, too for the relatively high technical and profes- 
sional standing of teachers of agriculture. 

Administrative Control 
Super\dsion and inspection, and approval and recommendation 
for reimbursement out of State and Federal funds, are administered 
through a division of the State Department of Education known 
since 1919 as the Division of Vocational and Extension Education, 
from 1913 to 1919 as the Division of Agricultural and Industrial 
Education, and previously as the Division of Vocational Schools. 
It is organized under a Director, with speciaHsts assisting in admin- 
istration of the law in respect to the several types of industrial 

19 



schools, the homemaking schools, and the agricultural schools. So 
far as industrial education is concerned the division does not in 
reality deal with the smaller communities classed as rural at all, the 
two technical exceptions being the general industrial schools at 
Sloan and East Syracuse. Both villages are rural only in the sense 
that they have populations below the 4,500 mark. They are not 
included in the study and report. 

Homemaking 
In homemaking the work is conducted by two specialists, both 
women of considerable experience, excellent technical training, and 
some professional training.^ In addition, however, to the vocational 
departments of public high schools included in the study follow- 
ing, they are charged with responsibility for supervision, inspec- 
tion, and approval of all day schools of homemaking, of homemak- 
ing in State schools, in evening schools, part-time schools, continua- 
tion schools, and all unaided courses in both secondary and ele- 
mentary public schools. Since the fifty-six schools in the rural 
districts constitute but a minor fraction of the total with which 
they are engaged, the two women, in spite of a more than usual 
competency, are overloaded. If anything like helpful supervision 
effective in the rural districts is to be provided the staff for home- 

^ Preparation of Supervisory Officers in Homemaking, 

Specialist in Homemaking. 

B.S. degree and diploma in Household Arts Education, Columbia University, 
Kansas State Agricultural College one year, Pratt Institute two years, Teachers' 
College, Columbia University, one year and one summer. 

Teaching Experience. — Assisted in evening classes and settlement work two 
years. Instructor and assistant professor in domestic economy and supervisor 
of practice teaching and women's dining service at Oregon Agricultural College, 
three years and one summer, head of department of Home Economics, Albany 
State Teachers' College, seven years. Half time specialist in homemaking, 
division of Vocational and Extension Education two years. 

First Assistant. — B.S. in Home Economics, Ohio State University, at com- 
pletion of four years' course. Eighteen hours' credit in professional studies 
toward M.S. degree, Chicago University. 

Teaching Experience. — Public schools, grade and high, Ohio, two years. 
One year in Settlement House teaching, Columbus, Ohio. Evening school 
teaching, one year. Extension teaching, Ohio State University, five years, 
instructor in Home Economics at same institution, two years. Supervisor of 
Home Making in public schools, Ohio, two years. 

Technical and Vocational Experience. — Managing cafeteria and tea room, 
two summers; managing a teachers' house, five years. 

20 



making must be increased. A regional system of supervision would 
seem to be more effective than the present highly centralized sys- 
tem in giving the frequent and intimate touch necessary to the 
maintenance of high efficiency among the teachers. A saving in 
time and expense of travel over so large a State as New York 
would probably be a considerable item. 

At present, partly as a result of the overloading mentioned, partly 
because of relatively frequent changes in the staff, the office records, 
other than financial, are quite unsystematic and incomplete. It 
was not possible during three weeks spent at the office, and with 
the most courteous and patient assistance from the two specialists, 
to obtain an altogether certain list of rural high schools approved 
for the year, or a complete and accurate listing of teachers' salaries, 
qualifications of teachers, and enrolment of pupils for the year 
1920-21. As for the content of courses of study, even in terms 
of subjects taught during the year, and the range and nature of 
equipment in use, only fragmentary records based upon the more 
recent "visitation memoranda" could be gathered. A consistent 
development of what seems to be a rationally conceived and pro- 
gressive policy is improbable, except the staff be increased and 
methods of record systematized. 

Agriculture 

Agricultural courses and schools are in charge of a specialist in 
agricultural education, who has been associated with work in the 
State for all but a brief period since its inception, — an active, 
experienced man, well trained technically, and of unusual profes- 
sional attainments. With him are two assistants both agricultural 
college graduates, graduate students in vocational education, and 
experienced teachers in the agricultural schools of the State. These 
three men^ are charged with the administration (May, 1921) of 76 

^ Specialist. — Six years' farm experience. Graduate of New York State Col- 
lege of Agriculture. Three years charge of teaching training department State 
Normal and Training School, Cortland. Two years assistant in agricultural 
education, State Education Department; one and a half years. State super- 
visor and teacher trainer, in New Jersey; three years' experience supervisor in 
New York State. Graduate work at Teachers' College, Columbia University, 
and School of Education, Harvard University. 

First Assistant. — Farm reared. Graduate of Hobart College, A.B. degree. 

21 



agricultural departments of public high schools, two unaided 
courses in public high schools, and the inspection and approval of 
the work in six State technical schools of agriculture. The super- 
vision and inspection of these schools are more nearly adequate than 
those in any special field of secondary rural education in the State. 
Visits, regional conferences and State conferences bring the teachers 
of agriculture and the administrative officers into more frequent and 
intimate touch than in any work of the department affecting the 
high schools of the rural communities. To one assistant are 
assigned the schools west of Syracuse, to the other those east of 
Syracuse, and the specialist himself acts as supervisor at large. By 
far the larger portion of the time of all three men is spent in the 
field with teachers and with schools. Yet teachers are asking for 
more frequent conferences, more frequent visits, and longer visits. 



Record of Supervisory Visits During the Twelve Months, July 1, 1919, 

TO July 1, 1920 



No. visits 
per school 


Number of schools 


By staff 
members 


By first 
specialist 


By first 
assistant 


By second 
assistant 


1 
2 
3 
4 

5 


5 
15 
28 
19 

2 


35 

15 

3 


27 

16 

8 


15 

15 

3 


Total visits . . . 


205 


68 


83 


54 



Total visits 1920-21, 204 

Graduate of New York State College of Agriculture, B.S. degree. Three years' 
experience as teacher of agriculture at Hamburg, N. Y. One year's experience 
as teacher of agriculture and principal at Burnt Hills, N. Y. Graduate work 
during one summer session at State College of Agriculture, Ithaca. Four years' 
experience as supervisor. 

Second Assistant. — Farm reared. Graduate of Massachusetts Agricultural 
College. Four years' experience as teacher of agriculture at Highland, N. Y. 
One year's experience as field agent for the Military Training Commission. 
One year graduate work in rural education at the State College of Agriculture, 
Ithaca. Two years' experience as supervisor. 

22 



During 1920-21 regional conferences of teachers were conducted 
by the specialist and one assistant, with a member of the teacher 
training staff, for one day, in eight centers. A State conference for 
teachers and principals and the staffs of the State schools of agricul- 
ture was held for a week in the summer at the New York State 
College of Agriculture, under direction of the specialist. A second 
week at the same place was given to a conference of principals on 
problems relating to their work as principals. In addition the 
specialist and his assistants visited for conference boards of educa- 
tion, district superintendents, and meetings of patrons in numerous 
communities wherein schools were already established or in con- 
templation. 

Accessory supervision, dealing with particular problems of agri- 
cultural teachers, is provided by a working agreement between the 
division and the teacher-training department at the New York 
State College of Agriculture, whereby during approximately four 
months of the year one of the teacher-training agents visits at his 
own discretion graduates of the department in the schools, and, at 
the request of the division such other teachers, graduate or not, as 
the specialist may designate for assistance. In 1920-21 he made 45 
such visits. Under the same agreement the shop-work instructor 
at the College of Agriculture has given no small measure of time to 
assisting teachers in the formulation of courses and the choice of 
equipment. His visits were 27 in 1920-21. 

In homemaking the teacher-training department has given some 
supervisory assistance also. Fourteen visits were made in 1920-21. 
Copies of all letters sent to teachers or schools covered by the agree- 
ment, sent out by either party to it, are made in duplicate and 
regularly exchanged. 

The records of the agricultural work for recent years are fairly 
adequate and complete. Yearly plans of study are sent in by 
teachers, criticized and approved or rejected by the specialist, 
enrolment is known and recorded, equipment lists on file, records of 
projects fairly complete and systematic, salaries of teachers and 
their general quahfications of record. 

Criticism. — There should be, for appropriate placement approval, 
more specific and detailed records of the qualifications of teachers, a 

23 



record in enrolment of those pupils who are farm boys, and a sys- 
tematic recording of the occupations into which graduate and non- 
graduate matriculants go. The division should, after ten years of 
work with agricultural schools, be ready to place before the people 
results in terms of selection, placement, and, possibly also, estimated 
success of pupils in agricultural pursuits. That it cannot do at 
present. 

The present specialist, in view of his prolonged and intimate 
experience, can state why such and such a teacher was approved for 
such and such a position, demanding specific abilities, he can tell 
quite accurately why such and such a school is thrifty and success- 
ful, why another is weak, why another has been abandoned. He 
can and does state positively that the agricultural course is selective 
of farmers' sons and country reared boys to a high degree, and that 
those boys tend to go to farming directly, or to the agricultural 
college. But there is no record by which he can prove his state- 
ments, confirmed in part at least by the results of the survey, or by 
which a successor could support the work of the division or be 
guided in policy in those important respects. "Red tape " has been 
pretty well avoided in the office. There is not much of record that 
is not worth recording, but significant items, not particularly 
difficult to obtain, such as have been mentioned are not included in 
the present system. 

Organization of Schools in Agriculture and Homemaking 

Schools of "agriculture, mechanic arts, and homemaking" are 
"open to pupils who have completed the elementary school course 
or who have attained the age of fourteen, or who have met such 
other requirements as the local school authorities may have pre- 
scribed." In practice the requirement means almost without 
exception the completion of a majority of the Regents requirements 
for the eighth grade certificate, or the same standard as is set for 
admission to all high school courses. 

The legal designations of such schools as are carrying on vocational 
teaching in the rural districts of the State are — (1) schools of agricul- 
ture, mechanic arts, and homemaking, and (2) schools of practical 
arts or homemaking. Such schools, as has been noted, must main- 

24 



tain an enrolment, an organization, a course of study, and be con- 
ducted in a manner approved by the Commissioner of Education. 

Until 1919 only the first class of schools was approved in the rural 
districts because of the regulation of the Division of Agricultural 
and Industrial Education that "A school of agriculture, mechanic 
arts, and homemaking must conduct a course in agriculture and may, 
also, offer a course in homemaking. These courses must be an 
integral part of the school." Nothing is said of a course in mechanic 
arts, and no school offers such a course. The inclusion of the desig- 
nation in the legal title is purely euphemistic at present, but prob- 
ably would give legal sanction to such courses. In all such schools 
for purposes of allotment of aid the teacher of agriculture was 
rated the first vocational teacher, the teacher of homemaking the 
second. In 1919 it became possible to establish courses in home- 
making without accompanying courses in agriculture or to discon- 
tinue agricultural teaching without discontinuing homemaking. In 
such schools of '^ practical arts or homemaking" the homemaking 
teacher becomes, for purposes of aid from the State, the first voca- 
tional teacher. 

Two forms of organization are approved for "schools of agricul- 
ture, mechanic arts, and homemaking" — the intermediate school, 
and the high school department; one form, the high school depart- 
ment, for "schools of practical arts or homemaking." 

Intermediate Schools 

The official statement of organization is as follows: "Intermediate 
schools of agriculture, mechanic arts, and homemaking. These are 
small schools of distinctly rural type offering four years of vocational 
work based upon six years of elementary school work. This type 
of school is not to be maintained in connection with any other 
secondary school course or department. These schools are planned 
for districts which do not at present (1916) maintain an academic 
department. Districts now maintaining an academic department 
of junior or middle grade may reorganize and establish an inter- 
mediate school." 

It is noteworthy that the four schools in existence in 1920 were all 
reorganized academic schools — three of junior and one of middle 

25 



grade. In spite of the regulation they have not lost or changed 
their academic rating by the reorganization, and are still rated J 
and M respectively in the official handbook of the department. 
Two such schools have reorganized again, previously to 1920-21 
and are now high schools, maintaining vocational departments. 
The form of organization of the intermediate school is not and never 
has been popular. 

The statement continues: "The course is so organized that pupils 
who are graduated from the intermediate school, may complete an 
approved high school course by two years of additional work. 

''In addition to the elementary teaching staff there should be 
three vocational teachers: (1) A principal qualified to teach agricul- 
ture; (2) a woman qualified to teach homemaking subjects; (3) a 
teacher qualified to teach English, history, etc. Each of these 
teachers should hold a special vocational certificate for the particu- 
lar work in which he or she is engaged." 

There is no modification of the academic subjects for vocational 
purposes — as probably there should not be — and accordingly the 
third teacher is "vocational" only in the sense of being one counted 
for State aid. In practice principals and homemaking teachers are 
teaching subjects other than agriculture and homemaking. 

The curriculum suggested and fairly closely followed is : 

Grade VII Grade VIII 

Periods per week Periods per week 

English 5 English 5 

Arithmetic 5 Mathematics 5 

Geography 5 History 5 

Agriculture (boys) 10 Agriculture (boys) 10 

Homemaking (girls) .... 10 Homemaking (girls) .... 10 

Grade IX Grade X 

Periods per week Periods per week 

English 3 English 3 

Mathematics 5 Mathematics 5 

Biology 5 History 3 

Agriculture (boys) 10 Agriculture (boys) 10 

Homemaking (girls) .... 10 Homemaking (girls) .... 10 

As with many school curricula, it is noticeable that the more 
advanced (and presumably capable) the pupil becomes the less the 
subject burden, in periods at least, is put upon him. The first-year 
work in agriculture and homemaking is not of the type offered in 

26 



the high schools, being of the ''Junior project" sort and not voca- 
tional. Boys and girls carry on projects in poultry, swine, calf 
raising, crop growing, etc., and cooking, sewing, canning, etc., 
respectively, with formal instruction of an elementary and general 
nature in relation to those projects. In Grade VIII and thereafter 
the work is that of the high school departments in vocational 
subjects. 

That there may be guidance value, as well as liberalizing and 
vocational value in the preliminary year is undoubted, although 
that purpose is not manifest in the organization of the work. But 
the pupil who may find the work distasteful or himself unfit, or, the 
boy particularly, who has a non-agricultural vocation in mind, or 
who desires preparation for a liberal arts or engineering or business 
college, has no alternative but to go on with three years of work 
inappropriate to his needs or leave school. The administrative 
difficulty of providing a range of choice in a small school with three 
teachers and with but two years beyond the eighth grade is great. 
But the assumption that three full years of vocational preparation 
in just two lines are necessary is unsound. By cutting the time for 
strictly vocational work in half, for instance, the range of choice 
by substitution of other vocational or non-vocational work could 
be doubled without increasing the teaching load, although necessa- 
rily adding to the qualifications of teachers. The salaries of teachers 
in intermediate schools are in the lower range of those paid to 
vocational teachers. It is not certain that their qualifications are 
lower than those of departmental teachers and high school agricul- 
tural principals. But if an organization more effective is to enable 
the intermediate type of school to be largely useful it is fairly cer- 
tain that the qualifications of teachers must be higher, or at least 
of greater range. 

High School Departments of Agriculture 

Regulation and Policy. — Bulletin 703, 1920, of the State 

Department of Education, makes the following statements with 

regard to the organization of high school departments of agriculture: 

"A high school department of vocational agriculture is to be 

considered an integral part of the organization of a public high 

27 



school. Pupils in such a department recite their non- vocational sub- 
jects, such as English, history, economics, science, and mathematics, 
in the same classes with pupils in other departments in the school. 

"The principal of the school is responsible for the general admin- 
istration of the department of agriculture and for making adminis- 
trative and financial reports to the Division of Vocational and 
Extension Education. 

''When local school officials contemplate the establishment of 
a high school department of vocational agriculture, the following 
information should be furnished to the Division of Agricultural and 
Industrial Education: (1) Number of boys in the academic depart- 
ment, (2) number of boys residing on farms, (3) registration of boys 
in the grammar grades of the rural schools tributary to the high 
school, (4) demand for instruction in vocational agriculture, (5) total 
assessed valuation of the school district, (6) extent to which farmers 
will cooperate in promoting the work of the department of agri- 
culture. 

" When this information is received, if conditions seem to warrant, 
a detailed survey will be made by representatives of this division 
who will visit and confer with the school officers and other persons 
interested in organizing and promoting instruction in vocational 
agriculture." 

In practice, when application is made to the division, whether or 
no full data have been supplied, the specialist in agricultural educa- 
tion, or one of his assistants goes to the community, confers with 
the school board, business men, and farmers, and if interest seems 
large or opportunity sufficient secures the appointment of a survey 
committee to study and report on, not only the points indicated 
above, but also the prevalence and extent of various types of farm- 
ing in the region accessible to the school. Except for the general 
"sounding out," and the indications of what data are needed and 
how they are to be procured the division does not make a "detailed 
survey." It throws the responsibility for an accurate representa- 
tion of needs and opportunities, properly enough, back upon the 
community which desires to establish the course. It then passes 
upon the situation and advises the local school board as to whether 
prospects of success appear good. In this policy is marked a 

28 



wholesome change from the earlier attitude of "promoting" agri- 
cultural education by placing schools wherever communities could 
be induced to accept them. Since the tendency is to measure the 
success of the division in terms of the number of schools established 
rather than in terms of appropriateness and serviceability of such 
schools, the later policy is evidence not of foresight in permanent 
"promotion" only, but of courage also. 

"If after a survey has been made it seems expedient to establish 
a department of agriculture, the question must be submitted to an 
annual or special district meeting." The resolution must be voted 
on by ballot or by count and record of ayes and noes. 

"The minimum requirements to be met by local authorities desir- 
ing State and Federal aid on account of the establishment and main- 
tenance of a high school department of vocational agriculture are 
as follows : 

"1. All departments and classes must be under public super- 
vision and control. 

"2. In the work of a department of agriculture provision must be 
made for at least six months of directed or supervised practice in 
agriculture. 

"3. Pupils should be trained for the vocation of farming with 
special emphasis on those types of farming which are dominant in 
the community. 

"4. The two rooms used for agricultural instruction must be 
adequate to insure the accomplishment of reasonable standards of 
work and to carry out the purposes for which the course was 
established. 

"5. The agricultural library should contain such books, bulletins 
and periodicals as are necessary for efficient study and instruction 
in the subjects to be taught. 

"6. Provision should be made for such professional improvement 
of the teacher of agriculture as may be designated by the Commis- 
sioner of Education. 

" 7. Provision must be made in each department of agriculture 
for the minimum equipment Hsted (by the division). 

"8. A department of agriculture must have an enrolment of at 
least twelve pupils throughout the year. The Commissioner of 

29 



Education, however, may in his discretion approve of a department 
of agriculture with an enrolment of less than twelve pupils when the 
local school authorities submit evidence showing that such condi- 
tion is temporary in character. 

**9. Provision must be made for such expenses of travel of the 
teacher of agriculture as are necessary properly to supervise the 
project activities of the pupils registered in the agricultural course. 
At least fifty dollars must be set aside by the board of education to 
meet this requirement. 

''10. The time of the teacher of agriculture must be devoted 
exclusively to the teaching of vocational pupils except in special 
cases and then only after consultation with and the approval of the 
Commissioner of Education. 

''11. A department of agriculture is required to maintain an 
organization and courses of study which meet the approval of the 
Commissioner of Education. 

"12. The local school authorities are required to make adequate 
provision for the filing of all official records of the department of 
agriculture." 

Qualifications of Teachers. — Teachers of agriculture must 
have "a special authorizing certificate. In order to receive such a 
certificate teachers must show evidence of graduation from a four 
year high school course or the equivalent, and also from a four year 
agricultural college in which an approved course has been pursued. 
Such a course must provide that at least 10 percent of the college 
credit hours be obtained from educational and professional subjects. 
In general, these subjects include educational psychology, prin- 
ciples of teaching, special methods, and observation and practice 
teaching." 

A teacher so certified may be disapproved for reappointment if 
his teaching be found inefficient by the supervisory specialists of 
the division. 

"Specifically a teacher of agriculture should: 

"1. Be thoroughly conversant with farm life, either from his 
home life or extended experience working on a farm. 

"2. Have good general knowledge of the entire field of agricul- 
tural subjects, including animal husbandry, dairy husbandry, 

30 



poultry husbandry, soils, farm crops, vegetable gardening, fruit 
growing, plant diseases, entomology, farm management and farm 
machinery. In addition he should have specialized in some phase 
of technical agriculture. 

"3. Have knowledge of the science and art of teaching. A 
thorough knowledge of agriculture may be of little use unless the 
teacher also has knowledge of how to direct the activities of pupils. 

"4. Understand the intent of vocational agriculture, be familiar 
with the farm home and understand the problem of connecting the 
school work and the home activities of pupils. 

"5. Possess skill in the use of woodworking tools and have 
knowledge of mechanical drawing." 

Evidence in greater or less detail in amount and accuracy is 
offered throughout the study to show in how far those requirements 
are being met, with some discussion of their efficiency and utility. 
Recommendations with respect to policy and enforcement are 
briefly summarized at the close of the report. 

'XuRRicuLUMS. — In the preparation of curriculums for a high 
school department of agriculture two types should be recognized: 
(1) a four-year curriculum and (2) a curriculum of less than four 
years." 

''Four-year curriculum, A four-year curriculum is organized to 
meet the needs of a group of pupils regularly enrolled in the aca- 
demic department and leads to an academic diploma in vocational 
subjects. This diploma will be issued to pupils in recognized high 
schools who earn at least 72 counts, who meet the regular require- 
ments for an academic diploma as follows: English 16 counts, 
science 10 counts, mathematics 10 counts, history 10 counts, and 
obtain at least 25 counts for the successful completion of approved 
courses in vocational subjects. The diploma will admit the pupil 
to the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University 
and to the College of Agriculture at Syracuse University. 

"It is expected that there will be kept on file in each department 
of agriculture a statement of the curriculum leading to the academic 
diploma in vocational subjects. After approval this curriculum 
should not be changed without consulting with the Director of the 
Division of Agricultural and Industrial Education. The following 

31 



suggestions will assist school officers in the preparation of a curric- 
ulum: 

Subject Place in Periods 

curriculum a week 

English 

First year First year 4 

Second year Second year 4 

Third year Third year 4 

Fourth year Fourth year 4 

Mathematics 

Algebra First or second year 5 

Geometry Second or third year 5 

Industrial arithmetic Elective 2>^ 

Science 

Biology First year 5 

Physics or chemistry Third year 5 

Physics or chemistry (not 

chosen in third year) Elective 5 

History and economics 

Community civics ^ Second year 23^ 

Economics or Third year 2)4. 

History (course B) Third year 5 

U. S. History with civics Fourth year 5 

Agriculture 

First year First year 10 

Second year Second year 10 

Third year Third year 10 

Fourth year Fourth year 10 

^ The course in community civics published and recommended by the Na- 
tional Bureau of Education (Bui. 650, 1915, No. 23) will be, for the present, 
approved by the Department. 

''The organization of a four-year curriculum calls for a double 
period each day for agriculture and is based on the assumption that 
the home project is an integral part of the work for each of the four 
years ; credit for the work each year is given only after the comple- 
tion of the projects. Regents credit of 7^ counts for each year's 
work in agriculture is given. The final statement of home projects, 
on blanks provided for this purpose, must be approved by the 
Division of Agricultural and Industrial Education before Regents 
credit can be granted. 

" It is recommended that first and second year agriculture precede 
third and fourth year agriculture in the case of pupils pursuing the 
four-year curriculum. In order that the teacher may teach the 
four years of agriculture it will be necessary to alternate at least two 
years of work. If the entering class is large each year it is well to 

32 



teach first and second year agriculture and alternate third and 
fourth year. 

^'Curriculum of less than four years. In several sections of the 
State the agriculture is so specialized that a curriculum of less than 
four years will adequately meet the vocational needs of the pupils. 
In such districts school officers administering the department of 
agriculture should prepare a two-year or a three-year curriculum 
designed to emphasize training in a speciaHzed field, such as grape 
growing, truck farming, etc. 

''In some high schools the enrolment of boys is so small that a 
four-year curriculum is not warranted. In such schools a two-year 
or three-year curriculum may well be organized. Pupils desiring to 
receive intensive instruction in agriculture during any one year 
should be permitted to pursue two years of agricultural work (in 
one). 

"Suggested Arrangement of Schedule of Classes. — To 
make the teaching effective ample time should be provided for 
field study. This study requires extended trips to the homes of the 
pupils and the farms of the community to study practices, crops, 
soils, animals, etc. It is suggested that the schedule of classes be 
so arranged that the withdrawal of pupils from school will not inter- 
fere with the class work of the other subjects. Also if the pupil is to 
conduct his project properly it frequently becomes necessary for 
him at critical stages in its progress to give more time than is per- 
mitted if he spends the entire time of each day attending school. 
This again requires an adjustment of the schedule of classes to 
provide for half day periods which may be devoted to agricultural 
instruction. 

"This does not mean that the entire time of every half day is 
given over to agricultural instruction, but rather that the arrange- 
ment of the schedule of classes will permit of such a program when 
the efficiency of the instruction requires it. The following are the 
salient features of the plan : 

"1. It will be necessary to alternate at least two years of work 
if the four years of agriculture are to be given by one teacher. 

"2. At least six months of supervised practice in agriculture is 
required for the completion of each year's work. In fulfilling this 

3 33 



requirement it is suggested that provision be made for pupils to 
carry on a portion of this practice in half day periods during the 
regular session of the school. 

"3. The time spent in supervised practice will be credited toward 
school attendance on the proper certification of the school authori- 
ties. 

"4. On those days when field or practice work is not required the 
pupils will devote a double period to agriculture. The remaining 
periods in the half day may be devoted to the preparation of other 
school work." 

**The Courses of Study and Teaching Plans. — The class and 
laboratory instruction in a department of agriculture is based upon 
the practical experience gained on the home farm and at the project. 
In New York State there is a wide variation in the types of farming. 
On account of these facts it is impractical to prepare courses of 
study for the various agricultural subjects that are adapted to all 
conditions. It is highly desirable, however, to organize the content 
of the various years' work in agriculture so as to include the impor- 
tant phases of agricultural production. The subjects indicated 
below are suggested for the four-year curriculum. School officers 
desiring to include additional subjects or to rearrange those men- 
tioned below should secure the approval of the Director of the 
Division of Vocational and Extension Education. 

"First year agriculture Third year agriculture 

Farm shop work Animal husbandry 

Poultry husbandry Fruit growing 

Home gardening (if not given in Dairying 
second year) 

Second year agriculture Fourth year agriculture 

Farm crops Farm management and economics 

Soils and fertilizers Farm engineering and machinery" 

Home gardening 

''The Home Project. — The participation by all pupils in super- 
vised agricultural practice is an essential part of vocational agricul- 
tural instruction. This training in the practice of farming is accom- 
plished by a home project which may be defined as a farming enter- 
prise which is studied and planned at school under direction and 
carried into operation on the home farm or other farm where satis- 

34 



factory arrangements are made under the supervision of the teacher 
of agriculture. It is not a series of problems relating to agriculture 
but is rather a definite piece of work in the conducting of which 
ownership, correct business methods, managerial ability, economic 
profit and study are emphasized. An approved home project is 
necessary to the completion of each year's work in agriculture. 

"In making preparation for and in conducting home project work 
with vocational pupils, teachers should give attention to the follow- 
ing general requirements : 

'* 1. The home project must be conducted over a period at least 
six months. This does not mean that six months is a sufficient 
amount of time in which to complete all projects. Animal and 
poultry projects, for example, should be continued for at least one 
year, and a strawberry or an orchard project should be continued 
for at least two years. 

"2. The major project must be chosen from the field of agricul- 
tural production studied that year. 

"3. The project should be chosen at the earliest possible date in 
the course of instruction. In fact, with the exception of those in 
the entering class, pupils should choose their projects before the 
opening of school in the fall. The 'Preliminary Statement of 
Home Projects ' must be on file in duplicate in this division on or 
before November 1st. 

"In cases where it seems advisable to change the project after the 
preliminary statement has been approved, a record of such change 
should be forwarded in duplicate to this division. In every case 
this record should be accompanied by definite reasons for the 
change. 

"Teachers should exercise great care in assisting pupils in the 
choice of their projects so that changes other than those warranted 
by study and investigation will not be necessary. Special attention 
should be given to the visitation of parents and the bringing about 
of a complete understanding on the part of all concerned in the 
problems and ultimate success of the project work. 

"4. Project study should start immediately after the enrolment 
of pupils in the agricultural class and should furnish the basis for 
the agricultural instruction in any given subject. The organiza- 

35 



tion of the subject matter in the yearly teaching plan should coordi- 
nate very closely with the problems and questions which the pupils 
are Hkely to encounter in conducting their individual projects: 
This is readily accomplished inasmuch as the subject matter and 
the activities of the project are each organized and conducted in 
accordance with the seasonal sequence of farming operations. 

"5. The complete project plan, records, accounts and summary 
must be kept on file in the school. Pupils should be required to 
show evidence why the various phases of the work as planned have 
not been carried into effect if such a condition obtains. 

"6. Project supervision should consist in continued instruction 
of individual pupils at the scene of their work and should be so 
conducted that definite problems may be left with the pupil at the 
close of each visit, together with suggestions or directions to be 
followed up by subsequent visits. 

"7. The 'Final Statement of Home Projects' should be on file 
in this division on or before May 1st of the year following the year 
in which the work was begun. 

"Laboratory and Recitation Room and the Farm Shop. — 
The rooms and equipment provided for a department of agriculture 
should be as modern and convenient as for any other department 
in the school. Rooms are not to be used for this work unless they 
are well heated, lighted, ventilated and sanitary. Provision should 
be made for two rooms: laboratory and recitation room and the 
farm shop. 

"The laboratory and recitation room and its equipment furnishes 
a means for demonstrating various phases of agriculture and affords 
an opportunity for securing individual experience. One large room 
properly equipped to serve as a combination laboratory and recita- 
tion room has been found most satisfactory. The agricultural 
room should be near the ground with easy access to the outside of 
the building so that classes may readily pass in and out without 
disturbing others in the buildings. 

"The purpose of the farm shop and its equipment is to furnish a 
means for instructing pupils how to do the repair and construction 
work which ordinarily needs to be done on the farm. Considera- 
tion should be had for (a) the fundamental tool operations, (b) care 

36 



and sharpening of tools, (c) construction practice definitely related 
to the project work of the pupils. During those years when shop 
work is not definitely scheduled as a part of the course of study the 
shop should be open and in running order and pupils should receive 
instruction in special phases of shop work which develop as a result 
of their project study and class work. 

'' Under average conditions a room for shop work can be provided. 
It should be at least 16 by 24 feet in area, well lighted and preferably 
with a southern exposure. Rooms not already suitable for the 
purpose may often be made so at small expense. If absolutely 
necessary, a basement room may be fitted up. In this case addi- 
tional windows will frequently be needed. 

''The shop should be provided with portable benches. The 
benches should be placed so as fully to utilize the floor space for 
handling lumber and work with the saw horses. It is suggested 
that provision be made in each shop for a bench with both a wood 
and a metal working vise such as might well be used on the farm. A 
lumber rack, usually built by the agricultural class, is an essential 
part of the farm shop equipment. Experience indicates that the 
best arrangement for the tools is to provide one or two wall cabinets 
approximately 6 by 4 feet and 10 to 12 inches deep. A grindstone 
or a foot power, high speed carborundum grinder should be provided. 

" Equipment. — In the selection and purchase of equipment for a 
department of agriculture consideration should be had for the 
following : 

''1. If the department of agriculture is to qualify for State and 
Federal aid provision must be made for the minimum list of equip- 
ment. It is not expected that the total amount of equipment in 
any given department of agriculture will be limited to this list, but 
rather that minimum requirements shall be considered as the least 
amount with which effective teaching can be done. Teachers of 
agriculture should give special attention to additional equipment to 
meet the instructional needs of special phases of agriculture domi- 
nant in the community. 

'*2. At the opening of a department of agriculture and at the 
beginning of each year thereafter a list of needed materials and 
apparatus should be prepared by the teacher of agriculture. In 

37 



the preparation of this list attention should be given to (a) the 
kind and amount of materials and apparatus, (b) where these may 
be purchased, and (c) the approximate cost. On receipt of this list 
the board of education should appropriate the necessary funds. 

'^3. Much valuable material for class and laboratory instruction 
may be collected by the teacher of agriculture from the community. 
This collection should be made in accordance with a carefully pre- 
pared plan of what is needed rather than to attempt to rely on 
gathering this material whenever it may be seen in the field. All 
materials should be preserved or mounted and labelled and neatly 
arranged in the laboratory cases. 

"4. A considerable amount of laboratory apparatus may be 
constructed in the farm shop. Care, however, should be exercised 
in doing this work in the shop because if no educational aim is to be 
served and there is no great financial saving to be realized the appa- 
ratus might better be purchased on the open market. 

"5. Inasmuch as provision is made for the alternation of at least 
two years of work, the entire cost of equipment may be distributed 
over two years. 

"6. An inventory of all apparatus should be kept on file at the 
school. At the beginning of each year blanks will be furnished by 
the Division of Agricultural and Industrial Education on which 
the school will be expected to report equipment added during the 
previous year." 

' 'Minimum Equipment for High School Departments of 
Vocational Agriculture. — 

First Year Agriculture 

Amt. Item 

1 Vy4" brad awl 

1 Set bits y,", 5^", 3A'\ ^e", J^", ^", K", H'\ 1" 

1 Countersink, rose 

2 Screw driver bits, ^" tip and ^e" tip 
2 Bit brace, 8" sweep 

12 Chisel, socket, firmer, two y, one )4", four J4", one H", three ^", and 

one 1" 
4 Dividers, 8", loose leg, wing 
1 Set twist drills ys-^i by 32ds, square shank 
1 File, mill cut, 6" 

1 File, mill cut, 10" 

6 File, slim taper, triangular, 6" 

2 File, slim taper, 5" 

38 



Amt. Item 

1 File, auger bit 

1 File card (cleaner) 

6 Gauge, marking, plain 

1 Glass cutter, turret head 

1 Grindstone, 2" x 24", ball bearing mounted with foot pedal 

1 ^ Carpenter's hammer, equal number, bell face, adze eye, curved claw; 

and plain face, straight claw 

1 Drawing knife, 8" 

1 Level and plumb, wood 26" 

1 Level and sights 

1 Mallet (or more if shop made) 

3 Nail set (assorted) 
1 Oiler 

1 12" half round wood file 

4 Wood screw (adjustable) two 8", two 12" 

2 4 foot steel bar carpenter's clamps 

1 Oilstone, coarse and fine face carborundum 

1 1 Plane, jack, 14" iron, 1" cutter 

3 Pliers (assorted) 
1 Punch, center 

1 Putty knife 

2 Saw, cross cut 22", 10 point 

3 Saw, cross cut, 24", 10 point 

1 Saw, cross cut, 26", 8 point 

2 Saws, rip, 26", 5 point 

1 Saw, compass, 16" 

2 Saw, coping, metal handle 

1 Saw, hack, 10", with one doz. blades 

1 Saw set 

1 Saw vise (shop made) 

3 Screw drivers, 4", 8", and 10" 

3 Sliding T-bevels two 6", one 8" 

2 Square, steel, 16" or 18" x 24", polished 

1 Square, mitre (blade fixed at angle of 45°) 

1 ^ Square, try, 8" or 9" tongue 

1 Tape in case, 100 feet 

1" iron bench screw for home made bench vise (1 for each vise needed) 

1 Blacksmith's vise, Zy^" jaw 

1 ^ Bench stop (shop made) 

1 10" monkey wrench 

1 ^ Two-foot rule, four fold 

1 ^ Bench hook (shop made) 

Blacksmith's Tools 

6 Cold chisels (assorted sizes, yi" to yi") 

1 Set drills yi" to ^2" by 16ths with square shank to fit bit stock 

1 Hammer, riveting 10 ounces 

1 Punch, center 

1 Set, stock, dies and taps ¥^^'-26 threads, X"-26, ^^'-20, l^e"-16, K"-16 

for threading bolts and nuts 

1 Breast drill or other geared drill 

(Installation of the following items included under blacksmithing is 

optional with boards of education) 

^ One for each pupil in average size class. 
39 



Amt. Item 

Anvil, 80 or 100 pounds steel with hardened face 

Hardie to fit anvil 

Forge, portable with hood and tub 

Hammer, blacksmith's 2 pound 

Hammer, ball pein 24 ounces 

Tongs, 18" length straight lip, ^i" opening 

Tongs, bolt, H"-y2" opening 

Tongs, fluted jaw, for yi" to |" iron 

Pipe Fitting (optional) 
Cutter, 3 wheel, cutting %"-!" 
Stock and dies, Armstrong type, cutting X", K", }i" 1", \%\ V^" and 

2" for threading pipe 
Pipe vise, capacity }4"-2" 
Wrench, 18" Stillson pattern, iron handle 
Wrench, 12" Stillson pattern, iron handle 

Tinning 
Soldering scraper 
Blow torch 
Copper, two pounds 
Snips, ?>}4" cut 
Bar solder, half and half 
Muriatic acid and zinc 
Sal ammoniac 

Harness Repair 

6 Sewing awl, assorted 

2 Awl haft 

1 Knife, harness-maker's straight 

1 Punch, revolving 6 tube 

1 Sewing horse made in shop 

1 ^ Black shoemaker's wax 

1 Paper needles, No. 7 

1 Ball harness thread, No. 10 white 

1 Box 50 assorted spht rivets 

1 Cake black harness soap 

1 Quart can harness dressing 

I Riveting machine 

4 Boxes assorted tubular harness rivets 

Drawing 

I I Board, 14" x 20" 

Drawing paper, sizes 8" x 10>^" and 12" x 18" 

I ^ Wooden T-square, 22" 

I I 8" 45 degree angle triangle 

1 1 8" 30 and 60 degree triangle 

1 1 Triangular boxwood scale ^2", 'A", He", %\ I", K", ^", 1', ^'A", 3" 

and full scale in He" divisions 
1 ^ 25 cent compass 
1 ' 4 H. pencil 
1 ^ Lead eraser 
Thumb tacks 

* One for each pupil in average size class. 

40 



Poultry Equipment 
Amt. Item 

1 Incubator (2, 3) i 

2 Sticking knives (1,2) 
Collection poultry feeds in glass 
Jars for exhibit (2, 3) 

Supply of poultry feeds for laboratory work 

Sample cartons (3) 
1 Catching hook (1) 
1 Butcher knife (2) 

Show crates (1) 

Carrying crates (1) 
1 Egg scales (1) 
1 Small hand sprayer (2, 3) 
1 30 pound milk scales (for use also in third year agriculture) (2) 

Insecticides and disinfectants (2, 3) 

Waterglass (2) 

Other temporary equipment made in shop for exhibition or project use 

Oat sprouter (1) 

Feed hoppers (different types) (1) 

Watering devices and stands (1) 

Second Year Agriculture 

1 Soil auger (1,2) 

1 Round-pointed shovel (2) 

1 Sieve for screening soils (1, 2) 

1 Soil thermometer (2) 

1 Collection of fertiUzer samples and lime (2, 3) 

2 Sheet celluloid 24" x 36" for capillary tubes (2) 

3 Mulch cyhnder (1, 2) 
1 Set soil bins (1) 

1 Root study case (1) 

3 Germination trays (1) 

1 Platform spring scales ("Family type") (2) 

1 2 Tripod lens (2) 

1 Collection threshed grains (3) 

1 Collection weed seeds in vials (2, 3) 

1 Collection grass seed and other farm seeds in vials (3) 

1 Collection grasses and grains (whole plant) (3) 

1 Set dry measures, including 2 quart, peck, half bushel and bushel 

Third Year Agriculture 

1 Brass or brass-lined sprayer (2) 

1 Babcock milk tester (2) 

1 Dozen pipettes (2) 

1 Burette (2) 

1 Dozen whole milk bottles (2) 

}4 Dozen cream bottles (2) 

}4 Dozen skim milk bottles (2) 

}4 Dozen acid measures (2) 

1 Quevenne lactometer (2) 

2 Dairy thermometer (2) 

^ One for each pupil in average size class. 

2 Source (1) shopmade, (2) purchased, (3) gratis. 

41 



Amt. Item 

1 1 Milk bottle holder (1) 
4 Test bottle brushes (2) 

1 Collection of feeds (3) 
4 Budding knives (2) 

2 Grafting chisel (1, 2) 

4 Pruning shears, hand (2) 

4 Pruning saws (2) 
yi Pound raffia (2, 3) 

Cylinder for hydrometer (2) 
Measuring standard for horses (1,2) 
Sediment tester, simple inexpensive type (2) 
Collection of fruit diseases and insect pests (3) 
Long handled lopping shears (2) 

Fourth Year Agriculture 

2 Trowel for cement work (2) 

Catalogues of farm machinery (3) 
1 Plane table, 18" x 24" (1) 
1 Level (included in Ist-year list) 
1 Measuring tape, 100 ft. (included in 1st year list) 

Miscellaneous 

1 Gross ounce vials (2) 

4 Dozen 8-ounce wide mouth bottles with corks (2) 

4 Dozen easy-seal pint jars, clear class (2) 

2 Dozen easy-seal quart jars, clear glass (2) 
1 Dozen tumblers (2) 

1 Dozen test tubes assorted (2) 

1 Dozen flower pots, 6" (2) 

1 Dozen pie tins (2) 

3 Dozen paper pie plates (2) 

^ Dozen 8" x 2" straight glass chimneys (2) 

3 Funnel (2) 

1 Dozen 5' linen tapes and V rulers (2, 3) 

1 Measuring cup in ounces (2) 

2 Graduate in 100 c.c. (2) 
1 Graduate in 250 c.c. (2) 

1 Oil or gas stove, with oven (2) 

1 Rubber stamping outfit for charts (2) 

1 Duphcator (1, 2) 

1 Pair shears (2) 

2 Large dish pan (2) 

3 Wooden, 3 to 5 gallon pail, tub, or container (2, 3) 
Support racks for use in setting up apparatus (1) 

6 Feet rubber tubing (2) 

5 Yds. cheese cloth (2) 
Corks, assorted (2) 

2 Cake, paraffin (2) 

Gummed labels (2) 
1 Package filter paper (2) 

Litmus paper (2) 

^ One for each pupil in average size class. 

2 Source (1) shopmade, (2) purchased, (3) gratis. 

42 



Item 
Sulphuric acid for milk testing (2) 
Commercial spray compounds (3) 
Lime (2) 
Sulphur (2) 

Chemicals in amounts needed for laboratory demonstrations (2) 
Copper sulfate (2) 
Formahn (2) 

Farrington's alkah tablets (2) 
Corrosive sublimate tablets, colored (2) 
Washing compound (2) 
Arsenate of lead and other insecticides (2) 
Tallow, beeswax and rosin for grafting wax (2) 
Potassium permanganate (2) 



"The Agricultural Library. ... In building up such 
a library attention should be given to (a) reference books, (6) agri- 
cultural bulletins and reports, and (c) periodicals. 

"In selecting reference books for the agricultural library care 
should be taken to see that the library, as a whole, is well balanced. 
Several of the best books on each of the important groups of sub- 
jects should be included. This is better than to select a library 
that is especially strong in some particular field. In providing for 
major groups of subjects, however, attention should be given to 
those phases of agriculture dominant in the community. For 
example, in a dairying region more attention would be given to the 
purchase of books on dairy husbandry than in a fruit-growing 
region. Experience indicates that the practice of purchasing more 
than one copy of a book on a particular subject that is of special 
importance locally is a desirable one. For example, in regions where 
cabbage or potato growing are specialties, from three to five copies 
of the books dealing with these special crops might well be placed 
in the library. All reference books should be listed in the school 
accession book at the time of purchase. At the beginning of each 
year proper forms will be forwarded by the Division of Agricultural 
and Industrial Education to schools of agriculture. It is expected 
that all books purchased during the previous year will be reported 
to the division on these forms. 

"Teachers of agriculture should give attention to the collection 
of bulletin publications from the United States Department of 
Agriculture and the various state colleges, experiment stations and 

43 



state departments of agriculture. These bulletins should (1) be 
chosen with the end in view of selecting those essential to the needs 
of the pupils rather than attempting to assemble a large number, 
many of which will never be used, (2) be made a part of the school 
library rather than the personal property of the teacher, (3) be filed 
and cataloged in some simple and practical way which will permit 
of ease in securing information and at the same time be easy to 
keep in order. 

''Boards of Education should make provision for subscription by 
the school to several periodicals. These should be carefully selected 
with a view to meeting the agricultural needs of the community. 

"Summer Work of the Teacher of Agriculture. — It is an 
essential part of the organization of the school that the teacher of 
agriculture be employed for service during the summer months. 
It is necessary for the board of education or trustees to determine 
the educational services to be rendered by this teacher during the 
time the school is not open (the summer vacation). This plan is 
to be submitted to the Division of Agricultural and Industrial 
Education. The following suggestions will be of assistance to 
boards of education in planning this work : 

"1. The school year should begin August 1st rather than in 
September or July. This will give a new teacher an opportunity 
to get acquainted with the agriculture of the section and to formu- 
late the course of study and teaching plan. 

"2. The following are some phases of summer work suggested for 
the teacher of agriculture: (a) supervision of senior and junior pro- 
jects, (b) collecting materials for classroom and laboratory use the 
following year, (c) locating objective points and making arrange- 
ments for field trips to be taken the following year, (d) studying 
the agricultural practices of the region by means of surveys and 
personal conferences, (e) investigating the need and making prelimi- 
nary arrangements for short unit and evening courses, (/) cooperat- 
ing with organized agricultural agencies in conducting work in the 
community that is of mutual benefit to such agencies and to the 
department of agriculture, (g) attending to the school plot. 

" Groups of Pupils to be Reached by a Department. — In the 
organization of a high school department of vocational agriculture 

44 



consideration should be had for at least three groups of pupils. 
These are: 

"1. Pupils regularly enrolled in the high school who pursue the 
agricultural curriculum leading to an academic diploma in voca- 
tional subjects. 

''2. Boys and young men who have left school without complet- 
ing the elementary or high school courses and who may be interested 
in receiving definite instruction in the vocation of farming. This 
group may be admitted to the regular agricultural classes and may 
elect such academic subjects as they may desire, or they may be 
enrolled in special classes organized during the winter months when 
the farm work is slack. This instruction should be designed to 
meet the special needs of the group and should focus on a farm 
project which each pupil should undertake and conduct for a period 
of at least six months under the supervision of the teacher of agricul- 
ture. 

"3. Adults living and working on farms desiring instruction in 
speciahzed phases of their work. The needs of this group may well 
be met by the organization of short unit day or evening classes, the 
frequency of which will be determined in a large measure by the 
members of the class. The instruction should be organized with a " 
farm enterprise in a special field of production as the basis of discus- 
sion. Whereas the teacher of agriculture will have general direc- 
tion of the work, his efforts will be supplemented by special lectures 
or demonstrations given by persons of the community who have 
done successful work in the field under discussion or by specialists 
from the College of Agriculture and Experiment Station or by 
county farm bureau agents. 

"Duplication of Money for Apparatus and Utensils. — 
Money expended for books and apparatus including tools and 
utensils to be used in the vocational departments of high schools, 
will be duplicated from the academic fund in the same way as 
expenditures for physical and chemical apparatus. No duplication 
will be made for money expended for unbound periodicals, series, or 
sets of books by different authors, textbooks, furniture, fixtures, 
benches, machinery, chemicals or supplies consumed in using. 

"Teacher of Agriculture as Principal. — In case a qualified 

45 



teacher of agriculture is serving as principal, he may be considered 
as the first teacher of agriculture under the condition that (a) all 
his teaching is of vocational subjects, (b) an assistant principal is 
provided. This arrangement should not be made without con- 
sulting the division, as it is sometimes difficult to maintain a 
satisfactory organization when the teacher of agriculture acts as 
principal. 

"Time of RECEi\r[NG Apportionments. — The apportionments 
for vocational schools are based upon the annual financial report 
rendered at the close of the school year. The apportionments from 
State funds are paid with the district and teachers quotas in March 
and May following the close of the school year. The apportion- 
ments from Federal funds are paid on or before September 1st of 
each year. 

*' School Records. — The following records should be kept on 
file at the school subject to inspection: 



"1. Register of pupils in all agricultural classes. 
" 2. Teacher's class book. 



"3. Copy of all examination questions. 

"4. Diary of summer work. 

" 5. Inventory of library books and equipment. 

"6. Complete records of each pupil's project. These records 
should include (a) project plans, (b) financial and labor records and 
(c) a project summary. Attention is called to the form on the title 
page of the final statement of home projects which reads 'There is 
on file in this school a detailed record of each project.' 

" 7. Permanent record of all vocational pupils." 

"The following is a list of reports to be made to the Division of 
Agricultural and Industrial Education by each teacher of agricul- 
ture with approximate dates of transmissal: 

"September 15. — Courses of study and teaching plans. 

"November 1. — Preliminary statement of home projects. 

"May 1. — Final statement of home projects for the previous 
year. 

"June 1. — Claims for academic credit for subjects studied during 
the previous year. These claims are to be made after the final 
statement of home projects has been approved." 

46 



Organization of the High School Department of Home- 
making 

Regulations and Policy. — The more important features of the 
organization of homemaking courses under State aid are described 
in the following excerpts from the bulletin of November, 1919: 

"The local home needs should always be taken into consideration 
in the organization and conduct of a homemaking department. To 
this end a study of local conditions may well be made before such a 
course is planned. This study will include the home attitude 
toward and local activities connected with homemaking education, 
the factors existing in the school system, and the probable vocations 
of its young women. In practically all communities there will be 
groups of young women whose immediate vocation after leaving 
school will be that of keeping a home." 

Though the general policy of the division in respect to the making 
of a careful adaptation by the school to the needs of its own com- 
munity is here plainly expressed, yet there is at present no such 
provision for preliminary study as has been inaugurated in the case 
of agriculture. The tendency to follow the syllabus rather closely 
is to be noted, and the conspicuous lack of systematic community 
study. Since the publication of the syllabus guide, too, the sub- 
mitting of a proposed plan of course at the beginning of every year 
by the teacher seems to have gone into abeyance. At any rate no 
such plans of 1920-21 for the rural high schools were on file in the 
offices of the division in May, 1921. 

"The homemaking school shall be organized as a separate course 
or department with the groups of young women segregated for their 
homemaking subjects. While pupils registered as members of the 
homemaking department may take academic subjects with the 
regular high school classes, it is not lawful for pupils other than 
regularly registered members of a homemaking department to be 
instructed in any of the homemaking classes for which State aid is 
to be claimed. 

"The first teacher of homemaking in a state-aided school may not 
teach any other classes than the state-aided classes. She may, 
however, have general supervision of all home economics work in 
the school system in order that a continuity of purpose may be 

47 



preserved. The second teacher of homemaking in state-aided 
schools may devote part of her time to the teaching of elementary 
or other non-state-aided household arts classes with the understand- 
ing that the amount of State aid to be given shall be prorated on 
the basis of the amount of salary paid for teaching students in the 
homemaking department exclusively." 

Apparently the first provision here is not being lived up to in the 
spirit.^ It may be that such pupils as are really electing the various 
subjects in the homemaking course are duly and properly registered, 
but so long as they may leave the course at the end of any year with 
credit for work done there is no interference with actual election on 
the subject basis. In regard to the second provision it will be 
noted in the report on observation of teaching that sole teachers of 
homemaking are engaged in teaching homemaking classes of pupils 
in the upper elementary school grades. 

"Minimum Enrolment. — A homemaking school may be organ- 
ized if twelve pupils are enrolled in the department. The maximum 
number of pupils in a homemaking class shall be twenty-four and 
no class of less than six pupils shall be conducted unless it is an 
advanced class in a third or fourth year subject. This regulation 
permits of the maintenance only of suitable sized classes in which the 
maximum of interest and inspiration may be sustained. 

"Schedule. — Each pupil in the homemaking department shall 
devote one double period (90 minutes) a day to homemaking sub- 
jects as outlined under the ' Courses of Study' and shall devote the 
equivalent of one 45 minute period a day to the planning and execu- 

^ In this and other cases where there appears to be deficiency in the matter 
of administrative control it may be well to bear in mind not only the overloading 
of the supervisory officers elsewhere referred to, but also the frequent changes in 
the supervisory positions, the considerable lapses wherein no supervisory officer 
was in control, and the relatively brief terms of recent supervisors. That under 
such conditions enforcement of requirements has not been close is not strange. 
Indeed it is rather remarkable that a fairly clear and consistent policy is to be 
found in the administrative aspect of the homemaking program. Since the 
beginning there have been five supervisors. There has been one period of nearly 
two years and another of nearly a year in which no supervisor was in office. 
The difficulty in finding qualified supervisors has been such that filling a place 
made vacant by resignation or death has necessitated lapses. Since 1917 the 
longest term served by a supervisor has been less than two years. To grasp, 
much less to solve, all the problems of administration in a state like New York 
is hardly possible to the most capable of women in so short a period. 

48 



tion of a supervised home project in accordance with the regulations 
outlined under Required Home Projects. In communities where 
correlation with the home is impractical the home project require- 
ment may be met by adding one period a day to the class time of 90 
minutes already required, making a period of 135 minutes per day. 

''Each year's work in homemaking subjects shall be accredited 
ly^ Regents counts. The total number of Regents counts which 
may be obtained for the four years of work in homemaking is 30, but 
42 additional counts in academic subjects must be earned by stu- 
dents desiring an academic diploma. 

''The academic program may be planned according to the sched- 
ule advised. The required subjects are English, science and 
history. Pupils may elect, under guidance, from the general high 
school academic curriculum the remaining academic counts." 

Although the actual attendance in classes observed does occasion- 
ally run below the requirement set, there is no certain evidence that 
the requirement is not being met. Except for the splitting of 
periods the 90 minutes' schedule appears to be followed. Record of 
the actual time devoted to "projects" and of the nature and scope 
of projects was not obtained. 

"Advisory Board. — The law provides for the appointment by a 
board of education of an advisory board of five members to counsel 
with and advise school authorities in regard to the establishment 
and maintenance of vocational schools. Women, experienced and 
talented in homemaking, should be chosen to serve as members of 
such advisory boards. Such a board should be helpful in the select- 
ing of equipment and in the determining of the efficiency of the 
instruction given." 

During the first year of operation of the advisory board require- 
ment, schools have failed to meet it in very large measure, less than 
one school in three having such a board appointed in May, 1921, and 
less than one in four having such a board in action. 

"It is recommended that no homemaking teacher be required to 
devote more than three double periods (four and one-half clock 
hours) to actual class instruction each day, subject to the following 
special limitations : 

"1. The luncheon hour is not to be considered as class instruction 

4 49 



time. A teacher of homemaking who has supervision of a lunch 
room during the luncheon hour is to be given free time during the' 
teaching day to the equivalent of the noon session of the school. 

"2. A teacher of homemaking, who is also the home coordinator 
having supervision of the home projects, shall be released from 
teaching for the corresponding number of hours that she must devote 
after school or on Saturdays to such home supervision, which 
necessarily must be done outside of the regular school day. 

"3. The time of the first homemaking teacher is to be devoted 
exclusively to the teaching or supervision of homemaking subjects 
in the homemaking school. This precludes the supervision of a 
general study hall and the teaching of other than homemaking 
pupils. She may, however, have general supervision of all home 
economics work in the school system." 

In spite of the recommendation in regard to teachers' schedules it 
appears that some teachers are distinctly overloaded during school 
hours. 

"Rooms. — The housing of the homemaking classes shall be in the 
high school building or a suitable building or rooms within an easy 
distance that shall not detract from the inspiration or interest in 
the work. 

"It is recommended that all rooms to be used for homemaking 
subjects be above ground level and that no room be of such a char- 
acter that artificial lighting would be necessary or where proper 
ventilation and heating would not be possible." 

In spite of the recommendation given above the use of basement 
rooms is not uncommon. With the extraordinary shortage of room 
in high schools, such as compels the holding of classes on stair 
landings and in all sorts of unfavorable places the fact is not sur- 
prising. It appears that there is no marked tendency to relegate 
homemaking to the poorest rooms. 

"Equipment. — ^The equipment must be suitable and sufficient 
for the work of the course and the laboratories should afford oppor- 
tunities for practical experience in the different activities. Such 
equipment will include blackboards, charts, reference books and 
working apparatus. 

"The teaching of the different phases of foods would require as 

50 



a minimum equipment facilities for preparing and serving foods 
in family quantities as nearly under home conditions as is possible. 
It is recommended that wherever practical the science equipment of 
the high school be used both by the teacher of science and the 
teacher of homemaking. This arrangement will help to secure a 
maximum of efficiency at a minimum of equipment expense. 

''In schools where the noon luncheon is prepared and served 
under the supervision of the homemaking teacher the equipment 
for this preparation and serving should be of a character to prevent 
loss of time, labor and energy on the part of pupils and teacher. 

"The equipment for the teaching of the different phases of cloth- 
ing should include a sufficient number of machines and good small 
equipment to provide for a high type of construction work. The 
equipment for teaching the science of clothing should include ade- 
quate laundering, cleaning and dyeing facilities. 

"All rooms and equipment of the homemaking classes should be 
considered part of the equipment for the housekeeping phase of 
home management. It is recommended, however, that there be 
provided facilities for real housekeeping in a furnished school 
apartment, a practice house or local community rooms. 

"Cooperation with the school nurse in the use of nursing equip- 
ment is recommended for the teacher of home nursing." 

Conspicuous lack of equipment, particularly in subjects other 
than cooking and clothing is to be found. 

"Qualifications of Teachers. — The success of the homemak- 
ing department is for the most part predetermined by the qualifica- 
tions of the teacher and the selection should be made with great 
care. The first teacher should be able to obtain and to hold the 
confidence of the pupils and of the community, should have poise, 
character and a pleasing personality. Since two-thirds of the 
salary of the first teacher of homemaking will be paid by the State, 
the community can afford to secure a teacher of experience and to 
pay a salary high enough to employ a person well fitted to serve the 
local needs. 

"The following are the required qualifications for a teacher of 
homemaking in the high school : 

"1. After September, 1920, no instructor will be eligible for 

SI 



appointment as a teacher of homemaking in a state-aided depart- 
ment who has not completed a four-year course in home economics 
beyond the high school in an institution whose teacher-training 
course shall have been approved by the Commissioner of Educa- 
tion. 

*'In addition, the teacher of homemaking shall have had practical 
experience in managing a home and shall have had actual experience 
in some commercial field related to the home activities. 

"2. A candidate who is a graduate of an approved four-year 
course but who is lacking in homemaking experience, or in experi- 
ence in a commercial field, may be granted a temporary license 
pending the completion of such homemaking and commercial 
experiences." 

Two teachers of five at present fail to meet the requirements set 
for September, 1920, though 8 in 11 are newly appointed w4th 
1920-21. 



"Suggested Curriculum 


FOR A High School Course in Homemaking 


Homemaking subjects 


Regents 
counts 


Academic subjects 


Regents 
counts 


Ninth year 

1 Elementary foods (>^) . . . 

2 Elementary clothing and 

desien ( V2) 




English 


4 


Science (biology) 


5 


Art 


4 


Tenth year 
3 Lunch room and special 
cookery (^) 


English 


4 


Science (chemistry) 

American history and civics . 

English 


5 


4 Dressmaking and millinery 

Eleventh year 

5 House planning and deco- 

ration {^2) 


5 
4 


Mathematics: algebra or 
geometry 






5 


6a Household science — 10 
weeks 


Electives: science (physics) . 

Mathematics: geometry or 
elementary bookkeeping 
and household accounting . 

English 




Twelfth year 
6b Dietetics, home nursing 
and child care — 10 
weeks 


5 


7 Home management (^) . . 


4 


8 Advanced dressmaking 
and costume design (/^) 


History 


5" 









52 



Above the tenth year the course outlined is not in any large 
measure operative. No record was discovered to indicate how far 
the curricular requirements are being met. Since the academic 
subjects differ from those of the general scheme mainly in the matter 
of sequence it is probable that they are being met, though undoubt- 
edly a good many girls are taking homemaking in addition to 
foreign language rather than instead of it. The proposed sequence 
deserves commendation in that it provides that science and Ameri- 
can history and civics shall be made available to the majority of 
pupils rather than the minority. The reverse is still the case with 
the agricultural curriculum and with most of the curricula offered in 
rural high schools. The more significant, in general, is the subject 
content studied the more likely is it to be reserved for the few. In 
the curriculum proposed it is also noteworthy that a girl may 
escape algebra, but it is doubtful that many do. 

"The courses are arranged in semi-yearly blocks with the aim in 
view of affording opportunity for as wide a range of instruction as 
possible each year, for the pupils who may leave school before the 
completion of the course. 

"One double period (90 minutes) a day is to be devoted to the 
homemaking subjects in school and a home project requiring the 
equivalent of one period a day (45 minutes) is to be completed as 
described under "Home Projects." Credit for the work each year 
is to be given only after completion of the project. 

"The sequence of courses during the four years may be adjusted 
to meet the needs of individual schools with the following excep- 
tions : course 1 is a prerequisite to course 3 ; course 2 is a prerequisite 
to course 4; courses 2 and 4 are prerequisites to course 8; course 6 
should not be given until the pupils have had a foundation of gen- 
eral science, hence is better deferred until the third year. 

"It may be left to the discretion of the local administration as to 
the distribution of time to be devoted to courses assigned for each 
year. If so desired, homemaking 1 and homemaking 2 may be 
carried throughout the year by devoting two 90 minute periods a 
week one semester and three 90 minute periods a week the other 
semester to each course instead of carrying each course for one 
semester only. The same arrangement may be made for the 
courses outUned for the other three years. 

53 



"In small schools where there may be but one teacher of home- 
making it will be necessary to alternate at least two years of work. 
If the entering class is large each year, it is recommended that the 
first and second year's work be given each year and alternate the 
third and fourth year's work. 

''The cooking and sewing taught in the seventh and eighth years 
whether organized in intermediate or junior high school or in ele- 
mentary school will be governed by the Regents regulations for 
elementary schools, 

"The home project shall be chosen along the line of the year's 
work in which instruction is being given. 

"The academic and homemaking subjects outlined under the 
suggested curriculum meet the Regents requirements for an aca- 
demic diploma. The selection and sequence of academic subjects 
is left to the discretion of the local school administration subject to 
the approval of the State Education Department. It is recom- 
mended, however, that a science sequence be required." 

The half yearly block system, as against the parallel unit system, 
is less objectionable in homemaking than in agriculture. But it is 
noteworthy that the "wide range of instruction" provided in the 
first two years is within the field wherein the home experience of 
girls is least lacking. 

"The content of a possible course of study is presented in a 
separate syllabus which may be obtained from the Division of 
Agricultural and Industrial Education upon application. 

"The foundation of this course is the work in sewing and cooking 
which is being given in the grades (5-8) in a large number of the 
schools of the State. In those high schools in which there has been 
no preliminary instruction, time must be devoted to the foundation 
work and an adjustment made of the suggested projects. 

"It is not intended to present in this bulletin a definite outline of 
topics to be covered in each subject, but to give the broad content 
of principles to be taught and suggest projects to illustrate the 
principles. Each local community will adapt the practical phases 
to meet its own needs." 

A copy of the suggested syllabus is appended in connection with 
the discussion of content of instruction. 

54 



CHAPTER II 
AIMS OF TEACHING IN AGRICULTURE 

IT APPEARS from a survey of the publications dealing with 
organization of the "schools" of agriculture, as well as those of 
homemaking, that the organization originally formulated and 
still in considerable measure operative was set up in advance of any 
very clear conception of the aim of the work, or of what the schools 
were expected to accomplish. The law itself says nothing concern- 
ing the aims of the work, except as such are implied in the name 
given to the schools. It is fairly obvious that an organization 
designed to prepare pupils for effective service in the pursuits of 
agriculture, that is for vocations in specific types of farming, will not 
be identical with one set up for the purpose of guiding pupils to 
intelligent choice of an agricultural occupation and the kind of life 
therein implied; and again that neither of the foregoing will be 
identical with a course organization for the purpose of giving a 
liberal understanding of the significance, social and scientific of 
agriculture. Though values under any of the three conceptions 
may be developed by an organization primarily appropriate to any 
one of them, yet the organization must derive its appropriateness 
and efficiency with reference to primary specific objectives. No 
organization has meaning as such except in terms of the purpose 
for which it is set up. 

State Formulations 
As will be evident from the report on aims of teachers there is a 
good deal of fogginess in respect to aims. That fogginess is legiti- 
mately derived if we note the statements of directing officers in 
the process of development of the work. The same organization 
is first credited with certain general objectives, and later with 

55 



others, or at least a decided change of emphasis. In the first 
bulletin, published in May, 1911, describing the organization under 
the law, the following statement appears: ''Agricultural education 
. . . . implies something broader than merely the establish- 
ment of certain new studies in the public schools. It suggests a 
scheme of education that strongly tends to induce children to 
continue in school until they are consciously prepared to begin their 
life work. It aims to provide for workers in the great productive 
and constructive industries the equivalent of what the State has 
long done and is doing for the professional and scholastic interests. 
It is based on a recognition of the dignity of labor and the necessity 
of practical information, experience and industry in the attainment 
of a well rounded education of the individual student. In recent 
years increasing recognition has been given to the value of agricul- 
tural study in the schools, not only for general information and cul- 
ture but also in laying a foundation for vocational interests and in 
developing and training such interests toward personal and social 
efficiency. These courses . . . have thus both an academic 
and a vocational phase which relate them directly to the general 
educational work of the intermediate and secondary public schools." 

Practically all, then, of the principal aims of public school educa- 
tion were to be achieved through the study of agriculture. If it 
were the most effective instrument for the accomplishment of such 
aims it should have supplanted most of the other teaching in the 
schools and been made compulsory for all, boys and girls alike. 
Certainly the intent of organization was very far from deserving 
the appellation vocational, even in the generic sense of including both 
guidance and preparation. So far as the "vocational phase" is 
concerned it included guidance and preparation for "workers in the 
great productive and constructive industries," probably including 
agriculture. A more vague or impossible conception of aim upon 
which to base a new organization, or to justify one already set up, 
it would be difficult to find. 

In the bulletin of May 15, 1913, the work is still "based on a 
recognition of the dignity of labor and the necessity of a ... . 
well rounded education." But the farming interest receives par- 
ticular attention. "The successful farmer to-day must be as well 

56 



prepared for his business as is a successful doctor or lawyer." It 
is implied that incidentally to giving him a "well rounded educa- 
tion" the course in agriculture is organized to effect such prepara- 
tion. In a publication of the same year the chief of the division 
of vocational schools says "Such schools train young people for the 
business of farming." Evidently there is an approach to a voca- 
tional conception of aim, but the course organization remains as it 
was. 

In the bulletin of November 1, 1916, no formal statement of aim 
is included. But it is stated with reference to the course of study, 
that "instruction is to be based upon the practical experience gained 
on the farm." That is, the present needs and interests of pupils 
are to guide in the determination of what is to be taught. Yet 
"definite courses of study should be formulated at the beginning 
and followed till there is urgent need for a change." Upon what 
basis they shall be formulated in advance of a knowledge of the 
interests and present needs of pupils is not stated. At the same 
time "a well balanced [with reference to what is not even implied] 
general knowledge of the entire field of agricultural science and prac- 
tice should be represented" in the course. The trend toward 
shifting the responsibility for objectives to the teacher is evident, 
yet he is still held responsible for giving "general knowledge of the 
entire field." 

In the most recent bulletin on organization, February 1, 1920, the 
director of the division states in the preface the conception of aim 
as follows: "The instruction is designed primarily for farm boys and 
young men of the community who desire to follow farming as a 
vocation . . . The true purpose of agricultural education is to 
fit for agricultural pursuits those who may cast their lot with the 
farm." Though the two sentences are not quite consistent, in 
that one considers farming a vocation, and the other implies the 
recognition of the actual status that there are various vocations pur- 
sued on the farm, yet the '^ academic phase''' has disappeared, and 
the vocational phase has come to relative clarity. 

The present supervising specialist made in April, 1921, the follow- 
ing statement of his conception of the aim: "The four year high 
school department has the aim : (a) To train and instruct boys and 

57 



young men for specific farming occupations in the region in which 
the school is located ; (b) to articulate such training and instruction 
with such economic and social science, related physical science, 
mathematics and English, as to promote a desirable type of farm 
and community living. 

^'The purpose of courses in intermediate schools is to give instruc- 
tion and training to boys in the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth 
grades in — (1) Prevocational aspects of agriculture; (2) to a limited 
extent in the specific farming occupations of the community in 
which the school is located. The work of the seventh grade is 
primarily prevocational in character and is developed on the 
junior project basis. In the upper grades the work becomes voca- 
tional in character. 

''Prevocational teaching is designed to give the pupil an intelli- 
gent insight into the dominant occupations of the region, and to 
give him a sufficient contact with those vocations to try out his 
ability in them. 

"Vocational teaching is designed to fit pupils for useful and gain- 
ful occupations in agriculture." 

Here are some fairly definite and acceptable statements of pur- 
pose, to the attainment of which there is evidence of a considerable 
modification of organization. The process of determining course 
content now approved, the acceptance of very marked deviations 
from previously standard subject sequence, and the provision for 
organizing the high school work into other than four year courses, 
are examples of the effect of the specifically conceived vocational 
aims. On the other hand, there is little evidence of an attempt to 
articulate vocational teaching with a country or farm life curriculum. 
No social or economic science is provided, much less required, for 
prospective farmers, other than is actually incorporated with voca- 
tional instruction. Mathematics occupies a place in the curriculum 
altogether disproportionate to any conceivable value that it may 
have in country life, and is, moreover, in nowise differentiated from 
the college entrance mathematics required of a city boy. The 
present group of studies pursued by vocational students differs from 
that of the college preparatory course only in the substitution of 
vocational subjects for foreign language. The division has given 

58 



little attention to the curriculum as such, if a great deal to the 
course as such. Nor is there any evidence that junior project work 
in the intermediate schools or that given by departmental teachers 
to grade pupils outside the school or department is in any wise 
designed to give a pupil ''an intelligent insight into the dominant 
occupations of the region." The fact that the junior project work 
is organized separately from the vocational work, with aims other 
than prevocational makes it unlikely that it can be relied on to 
effect the purpose stated. To discuss the aims and organization of 
junior project work is not within the task assigned the present 
study. If the work of seventh and eighth grades is to serve for 
vocational guidance, it should be organized to that end and not 
confused with the junior project organization. 

The rather clear-cut conceptions of the supervising officer, then, 
serve to guide only with respect to the content and the method of 
the vocational courses and not with respect to curriculum or pre- 
liminary study. There results lack of unity in the organization of 
the secondary education of the farm boy who desires to pursue a 
vocation in agriculture. 

Formulations of Teachers 

Actually what the course is will be determined by the teacher of 
agriculture. He can even effect a certain measure of articulation 
with the prescribed college preparatory subjects with which his 
pupils are saddled, enlarging their meaning and appropriateness 
and thereby modifying the real curriculum, though not affecting 
the paper form of it. In the case of the principal who is active in 
the supervision of teachers in his school such wholesome effect may 
be developed to the full extent to which the formal drilling necessary 
to success in the Regents examinations permits. Accordingly the 
point of view of the teacher becomes important. Sixty-three of the 
sixty-six teachers replied to the following three questions: (1) 
"What do you regard as the purpose of your teaching?" (2) ''Do 
you prepare boys to be farmers?" (3) "Do you prepare boys for 
special types of farming or vocations in agriculture?" 

Noting the replies in the reverse order of the questions, 53 said 
that they did prepare boys for special types of farming, 10 said that 

59 



they did not, 59 prepared boys to be farmers, 4 did not. Of the 4, 
none was an intermediate school principal. 

Now it would appear from those replies that the specific voca- 
tional aim was accepted by more than five out of six teachers, and 
the general vocational aim by fifteen out of sixteen. Yet from the 
replies to the first question it appears that with one teacher out of 
four vocational preparation was purely an incident or accidental 
by-product of his teaching, with two in four it was to a greater or 
less degree subordinate to other aims of teaching, with one in four, 
only, it was the sole and dominant purpose of his teaching. 

There is probably the human tendency in the replies to " splurge " 
a little concerning that to which we have given relatively little 
thought, and to fall back upon the ''larger and nobler purposes," 
but on the whole the replies are carefully made. 

The ideas implied fall under six categories of aim — vocational, 
prevocational, civic, promotional, liberalizing, and disciplinary. 

(a) Under vocational aims were classified such as the following : 
To make more efficient farmers. 

To train boys to be practical farmers and to appreciate farm 
life. 

To teach some useful technology, some skills, and to train boys 

to utilize them in making plans and carrying them out. 
To teach the principles of farming through special local types. 

(b) Examples of prevocational aims are: 
To interest boys in farm life. 

To give boys a better understanding of the importance and the 

opportunities of farm life and of their fitness for it. 
To help pupils choose their vocation. 

(c) Examples of civic aims : 

To teach the responsibilities of citizenship. 

To make loyal American citizens. 

To make unselfish and able leaders in community life anywhere. 

(d) Examples of promotional aims : 

To keep the boys on the farm. 

To lift to a higher level the agriculture of the community. 

To aid farmers in every way possible. 

To forward anything which will better agriculture. 

6o 



{e) Examples of liberalizing aims : 

To give boys not going to be farmers an understanding and 
appreciation of farm life and farm problems. 

To enlighten the community toward the farmer and his prob- 
lems. 

To inculcate in the minds of boys and girls of the present gen- 
eration the dignity and importance of country life and work. 

To make pupils realize the importance of the work of the 
farmer. 

(/) Examples of disciplinary aims : 

To train their faculties and powers by means of the science of 

agriculture. 
To enable boys to work with their brains as well as with their 

hands if they choose another vocation than farming. 
To train boys to think and to act. 
To train the mind by study and the hands by laboratory and 

project work. 

It is possible to comment only briefly on those statements of aim : 

{a) Most of the statements of vocational aim are in accord with 
modern thinking, the second being an excellent example. 

{h) The second statement under this category makes clear the 
prevocational aim as it applies to agriculture. 

(c) The blanket aim of citizenship is almost a slogan nowadays, 
in part, at least, because it is so utterly ineffective as a guide to what 
should be taught. Hardly an item or a topic in the whole program 
of school studies but may be justified as contributing to citizenship. 
That is well, but it does not make the aim of the teaching the making 
of a citizen. In so far as the teacher of agriculture is effective in 
teaching of efficiency and appreciation in farming, to that extent 
he is contributing to good citizenship. But it is not the aim of his 
teaching to make citizens. That is properly the aim of the school 
system; his aim is to contribute certain relatively definite acquire- 
ments in learning that add to the qualifications of citizenship. A 
man who makes his aim in teaching agriculture the ^'making of loyal 
American citizens," denying that he is concerned with training 
farmers, is far from having a useful conception of his work. 

{d) Admirable as is the ideal of service implied in the statements 
under what have been called ''promotional" aims, the aims are 

6i 



detrimental if at all controlling in the organization of the teacher's 
work. It is as far as possible from a legitimate aim of any form 
of public education to ''keep boys on farms" or anywhere else 
than in that form of living in which lies for them the fullest oppor- 
tunity for self-realization and social service. Because a boy is born 
on a farm is no reason, under a democracy, that he should stay 
there. It is legitimate that agricultural teaching should discover 
to some farm boys, and others also, that in an agricultural occu- 
pation and in a farm life is an opportunity for making the most 
of themselves. When opportunities and fitnesses are fully made 
manifest to country boys probably more of them will remain on the 
farm, but that is a by-product of effective teaching, not the aim of 
teaching. 

In the same way to serve the community and the farmers of the 
community is excellent. But if the teacher conceives of his pupils 
as mere instruments for use in serving the adult community, as has 
been done on occasion, then he is an exploiter of youth and not a 
teacher. That ultimately by his work with his pupils, and as a 
by-product, even, of their present work, he may expect to benefit 
the community is a reasonable and righteous expectation. But his 
teaching of boys in the public high school cannot be organized ''to 
aid farmers in every way possible." The one legitimate way in 
which he can aid farmers in the process of his high school teaching 
is by what he does for their sons. 

(e) The worthiness of the liberalizing aims no one will dispute. 
But the course which is designed "to enlighten the community 
toward the farmer and his problems " is probably one for city schools 
mainly. It is not a course for the training of the boy who intends 
to devote his life to work on the farm. That a well-organized 
vocational course will be incidentally to considerable degree liberal- 
izing is true. But a course set up for a liberalizing purpose might 
well serve that purpose without having any serious vocational 
value. 

(/) With regard to the statements under "disciphnary aims," it 
is safe to say that the teachers making them are so entirely ignorant 
of the nature and extent of mental discipline that their statements 
are meaningless as guides to the efficient conduct of their teaching. 

62 



They are in need of a period of professional improvement at the 
best. 

The frequency with which the various aims are expressed is as 
follows: 

Vocational aim 48 

Prevocational aim 12 

Civic aim 14 

Promotional aim 12 

Liberal aim 19 

Disciplinary aim 7 

No evident difference in type of aim expressed was shown between 
principals and teachers of departments except in the case of the 
civic aim, which was expressed by an equal number of each, or by 
relatively twice as many principals. 



63 



CHAPTER III 

SCHOOLS TEACHING AGRICULTURE UNDER THE 
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION LAW 

Distribution 

IN May, 1921, there were in New York State seventy-six schools 
providing instruction in agriculture and receiving aid therefor 
from State and Federal funds. In ranking by the State de- 
partment of education four of those schools were of intermediate 
grade and seventy- two were high school departments. 

West of a line running north and south through Syracuse, includ- 
ing roughly a third of the State and its most productive agricultural 
regions, were forty-eight schools, as follows by counties: 



Chautauqua 
Cattaraugus 

Erie 

Genesee. . 
Wyoming . 
Allegany . . 
Monroe . . 
Livingston 
Steuben. . 
Tompkins 
Seneca.. . . 



Agricultural 
schools 



All rural 
high schools 



21 

19 

18 

8 

9 

16 

12 

12 

18 

9 

5 



Orleans. . . 
Ontario . . . 
Wayne . . . . 
Chemung . 
Cayuga . . . 

Tioga 

Onondaga . 
Oswego. . . 
All other 
counties.. . 



Agricultural 
schools 



1 

2 
1 
1 
4 
2 
1 
3 



48 



All rural 
high schools 



5 

9 
13 

6 
11 

6 
21 
12 

J3 
263 



Percent of agricultural schools on basis of total rural high schools, 
14.45. Of these, six are in places of above 4,500 population; the 
other forty-two are included in the detailed study. 

North of the Barge Canal and east of Syracuse, in what is roughly 
the northeastern third of the State, including the Adirondack 

64 



mountain section, are nine schools, distributed by counties as fol- 
lows: 





Agricultural 
schools 


All rural 
high schools 




Agricultural 
schools 


All rural 
high schools 


Jefferson. . . 

Lewis 

Franklin. . . 
St.Lawrence 


1 

1 
3 

1 


22 
8 
9 

25 


Essex 

Saratoga .... 
All other 
counties .... 


1 
1 


9 


13 
8 

63 

148 



Percent of agricultural schools on basis of total rural high schools, 
6.08. Of these, two are in villages under a superintendent and are 
not included in the detailed study. 

South of the Barge Canal and east of Syracuse, in what approxi- 
mates the southeastern third of the State wherein agricultural 
interests are probably subordinate to urban, are nineteen schools 
distributed by counties as follows : 



Otsego . . . 
Chenango . 
Delaware. 
Sullivan. . 
Orange. . . 
Broome. . 



Agricultural 
schools 



All rural 
high schools 



19 
13 
15 
10 
16 
5 



Columbia . 
Dutchess . 
Putnam. . 
Kings . . . . 
All other 
counties. . 



Agricultural 
schools 



1 
1 
1 
1 

0^ 
19 



All rural 
high schools 



6 
12 

5 


_98 
199 



Percent agricultural schools on basis of all rural high schools, 
9.5. One of these is in a village under a superintendent and another 
in the borough of Brooklyn. The other seventeen are in communi- 
ties classed under the law as rural. 

The western third is numerically and proportionately best repre- 
sented, but the proportion is very low. 

Data with regard to the establishment of State-aided courses in 
agriculture are available back to the year 1911-12. The chances 
that a school established in the western third of the State will be 
5 65 



located in a community of dominant agricultural interests are 
greater than in the southeastern third, except chance be eliminated 
by careful study of community needs and opportunities. Now, 
until the past two years nothing approximating a careful study has 
been made in advance of establishment. The ability and willing- 
ness of the school authorities to meet the requirements of the law 
have been the basis of establishment. That placement in an agri- 
cultural region has been a factor in the promotion of steady develop- 
ment in number of schools as well as in the permanence of depart- 
ments is evident from study of development in the three sections of 
the State. A more exact study, entailing the records of agricultural 
vocations and their characteristics will be possible with the accumu- 
lation of records during the next few years. But the rough division 
made indicates that the present form of work is more appropriate 
to the genuine farming areas than to the industrial and summer 
resort sections. A table showing the total number of schools aided 
in each year, and the number and percentage proportion of each in 
the western, northeastern, and southeastern sections follows: 





Total 
schools 


Western 


Northeastern 


Southeastern 


Year 


























Gain 


Num- 
ber 


Gain 


Num- 
ber 


Per- 
cent 


Gain 


Num- 
ber 


Per- 
cent 


Gain 


Num- 
ber 


Per- 
cent 


1911-12 




15 




8 


53.33 




3 


20.00 




4 


26.67 


1912-13 


9 


24 


5 


13 


54.16 


1 


4 


16.67 


3 


7 


29.17 


1913-14 


10 


34 


5 


18 


52.94 





4 


11.77 


5 


12 


35.29 


1914-15 


13 


47 


8 


26 


55.31 


3 


7 


14.90 


2 


14 


27.79 


1915-16 


18 


65 


9 


35 


53.84 


1 


8 


12.30 


8 


22 


33.86 


1916-17 


7 


72 


1 


36 


50.00 


2 


10 


13.89 


4 


26 


36.11 


1917-18 


1 


73 


3 


39 


53.42 





10 


13.70 


-2 


24 


32.88 


1918-19 


-13 


60 


-7 


32 


53.33 


-1 


9 


15.00 


-5 


19 


31.67 


1919-20 


8 


68 


8 


40 


58.82 





9 


13.23 





19 


27.95 


1920-21 


8 


76 


8 


48 


63.15 





9 


11.85 





19 


25.00 



The western or agricultural third of the State, though showing the 
effects of the war as the whole State did, has developed consistently 
and steadily both numerically and proportionately; the southeast- 
ern section, showing a rapid early growth, has failed to maintain 

66 



its numbers and its relative position; the northeastern section has 
remained in approximately the same status during the past six years. 
One-half of all existing schools in the western section have main- 
tained agricultural work for six years or more; one-half of those in 
the southeastern section, the same; and in the northeastern section 
the median duration of instruction in agriculture is seven years. 
Thus, as to schools that survive there is little difference. 

Mortality 

But there has been a relatively high mortality, or discontinuance 
of agricultural work. The difference between the southeastern and 
the other sections of the State in that respect is significant in the 
matter of indicated adaptation of the work to the needs of communi- 
ties in which it has been set up. 

Of 108 vocational courses in agriculture established in high 
schools during the ten years between October, 1911, and May, 1921, 
32 have discontinued or 29.63 percent. Three schools out of ten 
taking up the work have for one reason or another discontinued it. 
In the southeastern section, of 37 schools taking up the work, 18 
have discontinued, or 48.65 percent; in the western section of 60 
schools taking up the work, twelve have discontinued, or 20 per- 
cent; in the northeastern section, 2 of 11 have discontinued, or 18.2 
percent. Four out of five, then, in the western and northern 
sections have continued in the work. Every other one has discon- 
tinued in the southeastern section. The chances, then, of per- 
manence in a northeastern or western community as against a 
southeastern have been as five to two. 

The reasons for discontinuance are not clearly of record, but 
factors entering in each case have been recorded. Of these, the 
demands for men in military and other service are quite obviously 
the most important. Discontinuations by years are shown below: 

1911-12 1916-17 8 

1912-13 1917-18 15 

1913-14 1 1918-19 2 

1914-15 2 1919-20 4 

1915-16 1920-21 

Twenty-three of the thirty-two were discontinued during the 
period wherein the United States was an active participant in the 

67 



war; and the discontinuance comes after continuance of from one 
to nine years. 



Duration of 
course discontinued 


1 

yr- 


2 
yrs. 


3 
yrs. 


4 

yrs. 


5 
yrs. 


6 
yrs. 


7 
yrs. 


8 
yrs. 


9 

yrs. 


Northeastern section . . 
Southeastern section. . 
Western section 


1 

3 





7 



1 
1 
3 



3 
1 





2 




2 
3 



1 

2 








1 
1 


Total schools 


4 


7 


5 


4 


2 


5 


3 





2 



In the western section one-half the courses were five years old or 
younger, one-half six years old or older. In the northeastern and 
southeastern sections one-half were given up in the second or first 
years, one-half in the second or a later year. 

Of those schools now defunct as to the agricultural course, in 
which the work persisted for more than a year, 28 in number, five 
were making noticeable gains in enrolment at the time of discon- 
tinuance, eleven had made a noticeable loss, twelve were maintain- 
ing enrolment consistently. One northern school was in the loss 
column, six eastern also, and four western. Or three-fourths of the 
schools dropped in the western section had not lost enrolment, 
one-half of those in the northeastern, and four-ninths of those in the 
southeastern. A loss of interest on the part of pupils, then, or other 
cause of decreased enrolment is not an important factor in the dis- 
continuance of departments, though less so in the western section 
than in the rest of the State. 

Of reasons given by the State supervisor the following are men- 
tioned in order of frequency as contributing factors: 

Location non-agricultural 9 

Teacher went to war 8 

Village people unwilling to pay toward course beneficial chiefly 

to non-residents 7 

Weak or tactless teacher 7 

Failure to meet minimum requirements for aid 6 

Local political fight 5 

Opposition of superintendent or principal 3 

Two of these are significant of difficulties often met in the estab- 

68 



lishment of departments. It was not many years ago that people 
complained because they were taxed for school support at a time 
when they had no children of their own in school. The spread of 
education has largely done away with that spirit. But it is not 
uncommon to find its like surviving in all types of communities. A 
village or city may derive its chief support economically from the 
farmers of the surrounding district. It maintains banks, stores, 
markets, and other remunerative institutions for their benefit and 
its own. But when it comes to schools, which yield no immediate 
economic returns, it ceases to be its "brother's keeper." To 
enlarge the opportunities of those neighbors, who may through that 
enlargement become better neighbors and greater contributors to 
the wealth and well-being of the village, it considers out of its pro- 
vince, even at the low cost entailed under a system of State aid. 
It is probable that no investment made by a village dependent upon 
the surrounding country will pay, in dollars and cents, the return 
that an enlarged educational opportunity will give, setting aside all 
questions of civic morality. The education of such communities 
in the matter is a function worthy of public endeavor. The adop- 
tion of a larger unit of support will minimize the difficulty. 

The second is the attitude of superintendents and principals and 
other authorities concerned with the schools. Many of our officers 
in charge of rural high schools are men academically trained in the 
conception of education as a discipline of the mind, rather than as a 
direct development in specific lines. They are without education 
in the needs and opportunities of rural communities. To them 
agriculture is a purely mechanical occupation — not a life or a pro- 
fession or an opportunity, but a field to which are relegated the 
mentally and culturally inferior. Unfamiliar with either the con- 
tent or the method of agricultural education they oppose it in favor 
of the ''cultural disciplines" of the academic subjects. So long as 
education is conceived of as a mere exercising of faculties, any form 
of it more costly than that involving book and blackboard recitation 
will be opposed. So long as the destinies of rural high schools are 
governed by those lacking knowledge of the meaning of education, 
and ignorant of the rights and responsibilities of the pupils with 
whom they deal, the enlargement of the high school field through 
vocational education will be a difficult matter. The setting of an 

69 



equivalent in qualifications for certification to the job of rural 
superintendent or principal comparable to that even now set for 
teachers of agriculture would go a long way to the enlargement of 
educational opportunity for boys on the farms of New York State. 

A reading of the publications of the State office in the earlier days 
of the movement to promote agricultural education gives ground 
for the belief that another cause of mortality, not mentioned in 
records, but often in conversations, has played a part. "Propa- 
gandizing" has led not only to inappropriate placement of courses, 
to the hurrying in of not fully qualified teachers, but also to the 
raising in the minds of the people of communities concerned of 
expectations out of all proportion to probable or possible results. 
That the injection into a community of a young man out of the 
agricultural college will in the course of a year or two resolve most 
of the social, economic, and educational difficulties to which that 
community is heir was not far from the tenor of the song of the 
earlier sirens of propaganda. That any comparable results have 
failed to come has disappointed and disgusted certain people and 
communities. Fortunately that stage of the movement, never 
quite so virulent in New York as in some states, has passed. 

Accessibility 

The rural high schools of the State are divided in the report on 
secondary education into four classes according to enrolment: I, 
1-49, pupils; II, 50-99 pupils; III, 100-149 pupils; IV, 150 pupils and 
over. Class I constitutes 54.5 percent of all rural high schools; 84 
percent fall in the first two classes. Now the agricultural schools 
distribute by classes as follows: I, 16 schools; II, 32 schools; III, 12 
schools; IV, 16 schools. The nine schools in places of 4,500 and 
over population, eight of which in considerable measure serve 
rural communities, belong to class IV. Thus the smaller country 
schools are by no means represented in proportion to their number. 

The division is aware of the fact, attributable chiefly to difficul- 
ties in meeting the enrolment minimum, and offers, at present two 
methods of meeting the difficulty. First, the employment of an 
agricultural man as principal; second, the combination of two small 
schools, reasonably adjacent to one another, in the employment of 

a single teacher. 

70 



D 



CHAPTER IV 

TEACHING AGRICULTURE 

URING April and May of 1921, 26 schools were visited for 
one day each in order to observe the teaching of agriculture. 
By counties they distribute as follows: 



Chautauqua 4 Onondaga 1 

Cattaraugus 1 Cayuga 4 

Erie 3 Seneca 1 

Monroe 2 Tompkins 1 

Genesee 1 Tioga 2 

Oswego 2 Chenango 1 

Wyoming 1 Otsego 1 

Orange 1 

Twenty-five of them were organized as vocational schools or in 
high school departments, in eight cases the teacher was also prin- 
cipal, and one was under the intermediate school organization. 

Distribution of Lessons 

The expense of observation forbade the use of a larger number of 
schools but, though the total is small the proportion of schools 
observed is somewhat larger than in any other field of the survey 
except homemaking — 39.4 percent. The number of teachers 
observed was 26 and the number of lessons, 54. Those distribute 
as follows: 

Number Percent 

Classroom lessons 26 48.15 

Laboratory lessons 11 20.37 

Shop lessons 6 11.11 

Field lessons 11 20.37 

What is probably a fair representation of the distribution of the 
forms of teaching in use during the spring months is thereby pre- 

71 



sented. As contrasted with the teaching of homemaking the num- 
ber of recitations and discussions in the classroom runs high. 
Compared with standard procedures in high school sciences the 
'^practical" lessons run high. In April and May field work may 
reasonably be expected to be at its maximum, indoor work at its 
minimum. From the standpoint of ideal distribution of teaching 
forms, the showing made in field work is disappointing, only one 
lesson in five making use of the extra-school resources of farms and 
the community. Probably, however, as compared with the teach- 
ing of earlier years and the teaching prevalent in many States the 
percentage of lessons devoted to field work must be regarded as 
encouraging. If middle April to June and middle September to 
Thanksgiving maintain an equal standard, then it is likely that not 
more than one lesson in ten is a field lesson for the academic year. 
Against this is to be set the fact that the summer months are devoted 
entirely to individual teaching on farms. Though, ideally, too 
little time is devoted to field work, in practice it is noted that 
teachers are relatively unsuccessful in the effective handling of 
groups in the field as compared with handling them in the class- 
room and laboratory. The superior objective teaching opportunity 
is, as yet, offset by an inferior organization of the work. Skill in 
field teaching must be increased if there is to be an effective increase 
in the amount of time given to it. 

Since only one lesson in nine is given to shop work and the 
majority of teachers are engaged in teaching shop, it seems that the 
oft repeated injunction to emphasize shop work at periods of the 
year when it does not interfere with the use of outside resources is 
being given some heed. On the other hand the laboratory and 
classroom work appears excessive for the season. But there is 
certainly no basis here for the charge that agricultural teachers 
devote themselves to manual routine in teaching. If there is any 
field of teaching in high schools in which a comparable balance is 
maintained the surveyor is unacquainted with it. 

Size of Classes 

Numbers in attendance on the various lessons observed distrib- 
uted as follows : 

72 



Pupils present 


Number cases 


Pupils present 


Number cases 


2 


3 


9 


2 


3 


2 


10 


2 


4 


8 


11 


1 


5 


8 


12 


1 


6 median 


13 


13 


1 


7 


2 


16 


1 


8 


10 







In half the cases, then, the number of pupils present was 6 or less, 

in half the cases 6 or a greater number up to 16. In just half the 

cases the group taught ranged from 6 to 9. 

By grades the lesson attendance was as follows: 

Number 
Grades present cases 

Eighth grade only 2 

Ninth grade only 18 

Ninth and tenth 5 

Tenth grade only 12 

Tenth and eleventh 1 

Eleventh grade only 5 

Eleventh and twelfth 3 

Twelfth grade only 6 

Eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth 1 

In 68.5 percent of the cases, the teacher was dealing with the 
lower classes of the high school only. In only one case was the 
complete range of school classes represented. The combination of 
successive grades is appropriate to the policy of alternating the 
subject years of the course. 

Two indications, so far as the limited data go, are evident in the 
preceding tables. First, that classes are small in agriculture, but 
that, in point of numbers they compare not unfavorably with those 
in other courses of high school work. The ranges in median size of 
classes, made up of both sexes, and for all subjects are for schools of 
enrolment total 1-49, 7; 50-99, 12; 100-149, 17; 150 and over, 20. 
Considering that agriculture is as a course, elective, and is made up 
wholly of boys in enrolment, the comparison with all subjects is 
favorable. 

Second, that the orderly sequence of grades in the course is being 
maintained — that agriculture is not serving as a group of elective 
units for all classes in the high school as appeared to be the case in 

73 



homemaking. Whether or no it should so serve, at least in the initial 
subjects, is not here debated. The point is that the State vocational 
policy is maintained in agriculture as it is not in homemaking. 
The number of lessons by subject years is shown below: 

Number Percent 

Subject year lessons by years 

I, Poultry husbandry 8 

I. Vegetable gardening 9 I. 42.6 

I. Farm shop 6 

II. Farm crops 9 II. 25.9 

II. Soils 5 

III. Animal husbandry 7 

III. Fruitgrowing... 3 III. 18.5 

IV. Agricultural engineering 7 

IV. Farm management IV. 13.0 

54 

Further evidence in regard to size of class groups and frequency of 
subject years is given in the following table for 61 of the 66 schools 
included under the ''rural" category: 



Number 


First year 


Second year 


Third year 


Fourtl 


1 year All 


pupils 


subjects 


subjects 


subjects 


subj 


ects subjects 


1 


1 





1 




4 6 


2 


1 


1 


2 




1 5 


3 





1 


5 




5 11 


4 


2 


1 


4m 




2 9 


5 





4 


4 




5 m 13 


6 


4 


1 


3 




5 13 


7 


7 


5 


3 




4 19 


8 


2 


2m 







2 6 


9m 


3 


6 


1 




10 


10 


6 


3 







9 


11 


2 


1 







3 


12 


3 





1 




4 


13 





3 






3 


14 


1 


1 








2 


15 


2 


2 








4 


16 


1 











1 


17 





2 








2 


19 


2 


1 








3 


20 





1 








1 


22 





1 








1 


23 


1 


1 








2 


26 


1 










1 




40 


37 


24 


2 


8 129 



Median 9 Median 8.5 Median 4.5 

74 



Median 5 Median 7 



According to these data half of all classes held have an enrolment 
of seven or less, half an enrolment of seven or more up to 26. 
Somewhat more than half the pupils meet in groups of from five to 
ten. The difference in size of groups between the lower classes and 
upper classes is marked. Half the classes in first year studies num- 
ber nine or less, half nine or more. Somewhat more than half meet 
in groups of from seven to twelve. In second year subjects half the 
groups are eight or less, half nine or more. Somewhat more than 
half meet in groups of from seven to thirteen. In the upper classes 
third year subjects enrol groups half of which are four or less, half 
five or more to twelve. 

More than half the groups are from three to six in number. In 
fourth year subjects groups range from 1 to 8 in size, half having 
five or less, half five or more. More than half are in groups of from 
three to six. The close likeness between the two lower, and again 
the two upper classes is accounted for by the practice of alternating 
subject years as noted previously. The upper class median is of 
the lower class median 54.29 percent. 

Holding Power 

In this last item is an indication of apparent holding power in 
agriculture decidedly above that of all upper class studies taken 
together. The medians rather than total enrolments were used in 
agriculture, because so many new schools are unrepresented in the 
upper years of the agricultural course. Figures for total enrolment 
of both sexes in 435 rural high schools by years are as follows: 
First year, 5158; second year, 3147; third year, 2027; fourth year, 
1427. The enrolment of the upper two years is of that of the lower 
two 41.58 percent. The gain in agriculture is approximately 30 
percent. 

Arrangement and Promptness 
Observers were asked to report on failures of arrangement or 
planning which resulted in greater or less waste of time or effort by 
class or teacher. Such deficiencies were reported for 10 cases of the 
54 observed, 18.52 percent. No time was wasted, according to the 
observers, in 37 of the 54 cases, 68.52 percent. One minute was 

75 



wasted in 5 cases, two minutes in 4 cases, three minutes in 2 cases, 
five minutes in 3 cases, ten minutes or more in three cases. On the 
whole, then, a reasonable promptness and an effective arrangement 
of seating, materials, tools, etc., prevailed. 

Aims of Lessons 
The aims of lessons were arrived at by the following means : 

Cases 

Stated by teacher to class 7 

Told by teacher to observer 26 

Judged by observer 21 

54 

The aims are almost as varied in detail as the topics and problems 
considered. They may be roughly classified as follows : 

Cases 

To give factual knowledge or information 16 

To give knowledge and develop principles 14 

To give knowledge, principles, and skill 4 

To give knowledge and skill 6 

To give skill 8 

To check on status of school work 3 

To get a job done without regard to educational value 3 

54 

Technology preponderates over technique. Mere information 
plays a large part, but, as a whole, the showing is good. That one 
lesson in nine was not intentionally educative is not altogether 
encouraging. The intervention of shows, arbor day, and clean-up 
day accounts for part of it, and the taking stock of ground covered 
with the approach of the end of the year for the rest. There is no 
opportunity for comparison with other teachers in this respect. It 
is probable that boys in agriculture are called upon to prepare 
materials for exhibit, regardless of any learning value in the work to 
them more often than other boys in the high school, but all pupils do 
something of the sort. 

Attitude of Pupils 

For all lessons observers were asked to record the attitude of the 
class under the following heads: 

76 



Classroom Other 

lessons lessons 

1. Unusually attentive and interested 11 9 

2. Ordinarily interested and well behaved. . 13 17 

3. Indifferent but keeping order 1 1 

4. Inattentive and disorderly 1 1 

26 28 

The showing here is, on the whole, very favorable. The percent- 
age of unusually attentive and interested pupils is high (37.03 per- 
cent) ; of indifferent and disorderly low, 7 percent (academic classes, 
24 percent). As compared with observed classes in other subjects 
agriculture stands well. The influence of a man teacher, however, 
is not to be overlooked, if it cannot be measured. Normal order 
probably runs higher with men teachers than with women, where 
boys are concerned, but superior interest cannot be accounted for 
on that basis. 

Proportion of Class Kept Busy 

Observers were asked to estimate as closely as possible the pro- 
portion of the class kept busy during the lessons observed. The 
summary follows : 



Proportion kept busy 



Not reported 

None 

H 

Va 

'A 

H 

9 
T7T 

All 



Classroom 
lessons 



3 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
15 

26 



Other lessons 




1 
1 

2 
2 
4 

is 

28 



Total 



3 

2 
2 
3 
4 

7 

33 
54 



The success of agricultural teachers in classroom lessons runs high 
in keeping the entire class active (57.7 percent), and high too in 
the other lessons and the total (64.28 percent and 61.11 percent). 
In the latter case, however, they fall below teachers of homemaking, 
81.81 percent. The great majority of homemaking lessons were 

77 



projects in sewing, in which often, mental activity, relevant to the 
problem at any rate, was at a low ebb. In terms of keeping pupils 
mentally active, teachers of agriculture rank above the norm of high 
school teachers, teachers of homemaking below that norm. 

Pupil Activity 

Another index to pupil activity was sought by asking the follow- 
ing question of observers : Were pupils active in contribution (other 
than mere reply to questions), in questioning the teacher, or each 
other, in criticism? Reports follow: 





Classroom 
lessons 


Other 
lessons 


Total 


Not active 


6 

3 

12 
4 
1 

26 


10 
2 
1 

13 

2 

28 


16 


Active in contribution 


5 


Active in criticism 


1 


Active in questioning 


25 


Active in both contribution and questioning 
Active in both criticism and questioning. . . . 


4 

3 

54 



Again the indications of pupil activity are encouragingly high. 
The percentage (70.37) is above that for the run of high school 
teachers and considerably above that in homemaking. Academic 
studies approximately 40 percent; homemaking, 56.14 percent. 

Assignments 

In the making of assignments agricultural teachers are notably 
weak, and there is for them less of an excuse than for the homemak- 
ing teachers, since fewer of the lessons, outside of shop, are mere 
continuations of work on already given projects. The idea seems 
to have been inculcated among vocational teachers, judging 
without data and only from conversation with teachers, that under 
a double period schedule pupils should not be given outside work 
to do. Were such an idea valid, the necessity for assignment and 
preparation is not done away with. A part of the period given to 
Supervised study calls for text and reference assignment. Use of 

78 



home and farm data effectively even on teacher conducted field 
trips calls for careful preliminary assignment. The rather notable 
weakness of field trips observed was due in large measure to the 
lack of such assignment. 
Reports on assignments appear in the tables below: 





Classroom 
lessons 


Other 
lessons 


Total 


Percent 


No assignment given 


9 

3 

13 

1 

26 


22 
2 
4 


28 


31 

5 
17 

1 

54 


57.4 


Given at or near beginning 

Given at end 




Given at another time 


•• 



Time given to 
assignment 



30 sec. 40 sec. 1 m. 2 m. 3 m. 5 m. 30 m. 



Homemaking — None given 
Academic " " 



8 



1 



1 



All classroom 



36 



40 



1 

73.7 
16.0 



Method 



Kind 



Group assignment (all alike) 
Individual assignment 



Given orally 22 

Given on blackboard 1 

Record made by pupils 3 

Assignment given as : 

Text or topic reading 16 

Problem 5 

Task 2 

Reference to: 

Text or bulletin 16 

Objective data 1 

No reference 5 

Assignment grew directly out of lesson 2 

Assignment according to teacher's plan or text sequence ... 2 1 



22 
1 



Some data in regard to assignments are available from the ques- 
tionnaires sent to teachers. Fifty-seven teachers cited details of 
topic assignments to the number of 160, which classify as follows: 

Number of teachers reporting text assignment only 20 

Number of teachers reporting text and varied reference 22 

Number of teachers reporting varied reference only 15 

57 

79 



That report is more encouraging than the observed teaching. 
That two teachers out of three are teaching boys to make use of 
sources other than the single subject text is promising. 

Use of Texts 
In regard to the use of text and reference these further data are 
significant. Sixty-three teachers reported : 

Using text only 1 

Using text and reference 60 

Using reference only 2 

Planning 
All teachers are required to submit by November 1 of each year a 
rather detailed plan of the subjects to be taught during the year, 
indicating the topics to be studied, the month in which they are to 
be taken up, the probable allotment of time to each, and the pro- 
jected form of lesson, i. e., classroom, laboratory, shop, or field. 
In reply to the question, "Do you follow closely the outline of 
your course that has been approved by the state ofiicers?" the 
answers are as follows: 

Following plan closely 44 

Not following plan closely 19 

In regard to planning of individual lessons, observers were asked 
to report when evidence in the form of a written plan, outline, 
special collection of materials, and the like appeared. In the case 
of classroom lessons such evidence appeared only 6 times, in the 
case of other lessons, 8 times, or in only 26 percent of all lessons. 
That the showing here is, by comparison, bad, however, is not to be 
inferred. Homemaking shows 25.45 percent; academic is not re- 
ported. 

Observers reported that in 11 classroom lessons and 9 other 
lessons the teacher had clearly prepared himself with respect to the 
subject in hand; in the other cases he relied upon his knowledge 
of the subject without special preparation. That in almost two 
cases out of three no special preparation was evident is not en- 
couraging. That teachers of agriculture are an unusually well- 
equipped group of teachers is hardly a justification for the apparent 

8o 



state of affairs. Teaching without special preparation, if it be 
effective, is not so effective as it might be with special preparation. 

Preparation of Pupils 

In line with the infrequency of assignment already reported on 
in schools under observation is the infrequent special preparation of 
the lesson by pupils. For shop and laboratory lessons and some 
field lessons there is often little required in the way of advance pre- 
paration by pupils, but in the case of classroom lessons the lack is 
noticeable. In only nine cases was a well-prepared lesson reported 
by observers for classroom lessons, and in six cases for other lessons. 

On the other hand, evidence of system and unity in the lesson is 
fairly evident in the majority of cases, namely, in 18 lessons in the 
classroom and 18 in laboratory, shop, or field, or in exactly two 
lessons out of three. Lack of system and organization is one of the 
outstanding faults of academic teaching. The showing here is rel- 
atively good on the basis of unannounced visiting by strange ob- 
servers, and the undoubted tendency of certain teachers to be 
"rattled" or ''set up" by the presence of a visitor. In several 
cases the desire to display the attainments of pupils over a con- 
siderable range of technology destroyed all unity in the lessons 
observed. 

Types of Lessons and Procedure 

Classroom lessons observed may be in some measure compared 
with those in the academic subjects of the curriculum, since a few 
like points were considered and reported on. But the shop and 
field lessons and most of those classed as laboratory lessons are not 
readily comparable with those in other subjects in which the teach- 
ing was observed. The nearest comparison is in the homemaking 
field of vocational work. 

The time used for classroom lessons is reported as follows: 

20 minutes 1 

30 minutes 4 

45 minutes 10 

50 minutes 3 

70 minutes 1 

80 minutes 2 

90 minutes 1 

6 8i 



The tendency to prolong the recitation period to fill the entire 
double period devoted to agricultural instruction is not very 
marked. 

Classroom lessons as mere text rendering are reported in only 4 
cases 15.34 percent, as against 45 percent with academic teachers — 
a very favorable showing ; as development lessons, 6 cases; as topic 
discussion, 7 cases; as topic discussion in review, 9 cases — 61.54 per- 
cent as against 15 percent with academic teachers. That superior 
types of classroom lessons prevailed is evident. The proportion of 
reviews runs high, probably because of the approach of the end of 
the academic year, but not as high with academic classes (34.6 per- 
cent as compared with 46 percent). 

Procedure was varied, question and answer predominating in 
22 cases. Teachers resorted to telling in 14 cases, boys worked at 
the blackboard in 11 cases, and took notes in 7. The habit of 
lecturing among teachers of agriculture, derivative of their college 
experience, which was notorious five or six years ago, has evidently 
been largely overcome. Topical discussion by the class has come 
in largely to replace it. No serious general faults can be found 
with classroom procedures. 

To make the work concrete, teachers used illustration in five 
cases and specific reference to pupils' experiences in 19 cases. No 
attempt at concreteness other than that of the text is reported in 
only 4 cases (agriculture, 15.4 percent, academic, 45 percent). 
Here is an excellent index of good teaching. 

Attention to the McMurry standards of initiative, evaluation, 
and organization was noted as follows: 

None 3 Evaluation 18 

Initiative 6 Organization 8 

The thinking processes are not largely neglected. 

In lessons other than classroom the types were classified as 
follows : 

Project — An undertaking resulting in a material product belong- 
ing to the pupil and appropriate to his present needs in farming 
at home. 



82 



Problem — An undertaking involving planning, analysis, evalua- 
tion as well as doing, regardless of whether it be a beginning 
project or no. 

Practicum — An undertaking for the acquirement of skill, in 
which boys know what they are to accomplish. 

Exercise — Doing merely because it is the task of the day, follow- 
ing directions without purpose. 

Observation — The acquisition of meanings without participation 
in the work done. 



Summary of Reported Types 





Laboratory 
lessons 


Shop 
lessons 


Field 
lessons 


All 


Project 



6 
1 
4 



2 
1 
1 
2 



2 
1 

1 
2 
5 


4 


Problem 


8 


Practicum 


3 


Exercise 


8 


Observation 


5 




11 


6 


11 


28 



The lack of understanding and motive for work is indicated 
chiefly in the exercise type most conspicuous in laboratory and shop 
work. On the whole, the showing is fairly good, thinking being re- 
quired in at least one case in three. In the judgment of the sur- 
veyor that is a somewhat higher standard than is shown in the 
laboratory work of the high school sciences, and according to actual 
data, higher than in homemaking laboratory work. 

In procedures the following standards were used: 

Demonstration — The teacher sets a standard of procedure by 
doing the thing which the pupils are to do. 

Direction — The teacher tells the pupils what to do. 

Suggestion — The teacher by illustration, remark, or question 
leads the pupil to discover for himself what to do. 

Practice — The pupil does the manual work. 



83 



Procedures 
Primarily Group Teaching 



Demonstration 

Demonstration and practice 

Direction and practice 

Suggestion and practice . . . . 

Practice only 

Question and answer 



Laboratory 


Shop 


Field 


lessons 


lessons 


lessons 








4 








1 





2 


2 


2 


1 


1 


4 


1 


1 








1 



All 



Primarily Individual TEAcmNG 




Laboratory 
lessons 


Shop 
lessons 


Field 
lessons 


All 


Direction and practice 


2 
2 
1 




2 



1 




3 


Suggestion and practice 


4 


Practice only 


1 







In 25 percent of the cases of teaching other than classroom, the 
boys were left entirely to their own resources. In five of the seven 
cases the work was in laboratory, where a manual is usually avail- 
able. In 25 percent of the cases the teacher confined himself to 
explicit directions as to how to get the job done. In half the cases 
a superior form of teaching was used. Compared to the work of 
the homemaking teachers, this is a favorable showing, but the atti- 
tude of the foreman is a little too pronounced for the best educative 
results. To get a job done by giving directions one by one is 
perhaps an efficient means. To develop responsibility and ini- 
tiative in boys learning to work it is a poor one. 

In the conduct of so-called "practical work," good teaching de- 
mands attention to the McMurry standards as well as in other 
forms of teaching. In addition, the learning pupil must be made 
aware of the process of his doing. Efficiency in doing involves the 
factors of speed and accuracy. Reports as to those aspects of the 
teaching observed follow: 

84 



Attention to: 

Evaluation 

Organization 

Process analysis 

Accuracy 

Speed 

Accuracy and analysis 

Accuracy, analysis, organization 

Analysis and evaluation 

Analysis and organization 

No attention to any factor 



Laboratory 
lessons 



11 



Shop 
lessons 



Field 
lessons 



11 



All 



28 



Shop teaching in particular appears to be to a high degree mechan- 
ical. The number of cases is small, but the conclusion is in line 
with observations reported apart from the survey. The super- 
visory officers and teacher trainers are aware of the deficiency and 
are giving considerable emphasis to shop teaching. Field lessons 
are not strong here either, but their chief weakness appears in a 
failure to keep boys continuously and appropriately active. 

Impressions of Teachers 
Reports upon the observers ' impressions of teachers in appear- 
ance, voice, and manner are reported as follows: 



Appearance 

Pleasing or attractive. . 15 

Neutral 7 

Unattractive 2 

Shabby 1 

Unhealthy 1 



Voice 

Clear and deep 4 

Good 15 

Indistinct 6 

Harsh 1 



Manner 

Pleasant 14 

Considerate 2 

Vigorous 3 

Quiet 1 

Nervous and giggly ... 1 



Probably agricultural teachers compare favorably with the run 
of high school teachers in those respects. The most conspicuous 
defect, indistinct speech, is remediable if persistent attention be 
given to it by teachers. 

85 



Observers' impressions of the teachers' knowledge of the subject 
taught are reported as: 

Exceptionally good 2 

Good 18 

Bookish 1 

Uncertain 5 

Impressions of vocational competency, or possession of abilities 
such as the teacher is trying to develop in boys, follow : 

Exceptionally good 2 

Good 19 

Uncertain 5 

In terms of knowledge of the subject and vocational competency 
it is, perhaps, significant that the proportions seem very close to 
those revealed in the matter of technical preparation. 

Reports on the apparent professional attitude of the teacher as 
revealed in appreciation of his work, and desire for growth in it, 
mainly impressions gained from observation, record of work, and 
conversation, follow: 

Excellent 3 

Good 12 

Fair 3 

Poor 8 

The percentage of those unprofessional in attitude here is fairly 
comparable with that shown in the report on the undertaking of 
professional improvement, but generalizations are unsafe. 

Apparent attitude of pupils toward the teacher and his apparent 
influence over them are reported below: 

Attitude of pupils friendly and respectful 16 

Attitude of pupils friendly 9 

Attitude of pupils disrespectful and unfriendly 1 

Influence strong and good 5 

Influence good 16 

Influence weak 5 

Ratings 
Reports of observers on teaching, including a detailed story be- 
yond the points checked above, were read and discussed for each 
teacher and rated separately and jointly by the surveyor of voca- 

86 



tional teaching and the surveyor of academic teaching in high 
schools. In only two cases was there any difference in the rating 
and in both cases the conservative rating was adopted. 

Number 

of cases 

Very high grade teaching 1 

Superior teaching 8 Percent above normal, 34.62 

Normally good teaching 12 

Inferior teaching 4 Percent below normal, 19.23 

Very low grade teaching 1 

That in terms of observed success the teachers of agriculture 
rank above the norm of all teachers observed in the survey of high 
schools and considerably above the teachers of homemaking is 
fairly evident. If the random selection be fairly representative, as 
the probabilities are that it is, then the differences in success of 
teachers in the two rural vocational branches is fairly commensur- 
ate with their relative standings in technical and professional 
training. 

Other indications of the greater or less ability shown by teachers 
of agriculture in meeting the problems of teaching are indicated by 
replies to the questionnaire. For example: 

Skills 

Fifty-nine teachers of 63 reporting keep a list of skills in which 
boys must acquire proficiency for graduation. There is no State 
requirement that they do so. The range of skills reported is from 
4 to 41, with a median of 14. That indicates intelligent procedure. 

In answer to the question, ''Do you require the same skills of 
all?" 45 say yes; 18, no — all teachers replying to the question. 
Except all pupils are prospectively (1) to pursue the same occupa- 
tion in agriculture, or except (2) the skills selected are those appro- 
priate to all the several occupations for which pupils are preparing, 
only the minority of teachers are intelligently discriminating. 

With regard to the first point, some evidence is to be had. In 
reply to the question, "Do you prepare boys for special types of 
farming?" 10 teachers only said no; 53 said yes. The types 
mentioned by teachers for which boys were heading in their 

87 



schools are mentioned with the following frequencies by the 53 
teachers. 

Dairy farming 48 Peach growers 1 

General farming 17 Small fruit growers 7 

Poultry farming 39 Grape growers 4 

Farm managers 14 Market gardeners 12 

Apple growers 12 Farm mechanics 9 

To the question, "Do all your boys intend to follow the same 
occupation?" 6 answered yes, 57, no. Evidently, then, the answer 
of the majority is not to be justified by the needs of a common oc- 
cupation. 

With respect to the second possible justification, the evidence is 
taken from the lists of skills submitted by teachers. The data are 
not to be relied upon very securely for the reason that a suggestive 
list furnished in the questionnaire had a marked influence on 
frequencies. The 14 most frequently reported skills are as follows, 
in order of frequency: 

1. Culling hens. 8. Budding. 

2. Sharpening a saw. 9. Adjusting a carburetor. 

3. Testing milk. 10. Milking. 

4. Judging dairy cattle. 11. Harnessing a team. 

5. Pruning apple trees. 12. Driving a team. 

6. Grafting. 13. Tempering a chisel. 

7. Spraying trees. 14. Making a bridle. 

Certain of those skills are particularly appropriate to poultry 
keeping, to dairy farming, to fruit growing, etc. No study has yet 
been made to determine the vocational necessity for any of them, 
but the majority probably have a rather wide applicability in agri- 
cultural vocations. There appears, then, a probably reasonable 
basis for the reply made by the majority of teachers. 

Those 18 who reported a differentiation in requirements may 
be classified as to reasons given as follows: 

Based on differences in acquirements already possessed by 
boys — do not teach what the boy knows already, but only such as 
represent a deficiency, 8 replies. 

Based on differences both in skills and proficiencies in skills re- 
quisite in particular occupations for which boys prepare, 6 replies. 



Based on immediate interests and needs of the boys in the con- 
duct of their home farm work, 4 repKes. 

A very creditable degree of professional insight is shown in such 
replies. 

Asked, *' Do you test for all the skills you require?" 44 teachers 
replied affirmatively, 19 negatively. 

''By what means do you determine the degree of skill required? 
Please cite a case." The replies indicate a general tendency to 
determine standards empirically according to the vocational ex- 
perience of the teacher. The question is interpreted almost in- 
variably as referring to the acceptability of various proficiencies 
rather than to the determination from vocational data what those 
proficiencies should be. Very few men have given to the latter 
important consideration much thought. 

Three, however, state that they judge the degree of skill by 
the known requirements of the vocation. 

Twenty-eight consider proficiency sufficient when the objective 
of the skill in product is attained acceptably to the teacher. 

Five give heed to speed and accuracy in process. 

One uses a score card for certain skills. 

One varies the proficiency standard according to the age, physical 
and mental limitations of the pupil. 

The examples cited classify as follows: 

Making a product that will bear the test of use, e. g., sharpening a 

saw, then using it, 8. 
Accomplishing a result that satisfies the teacher, e. g., plowing 

a field which is later inspected; making a graft which is later 

examined, 24. 
Going through a performance which satisfies the teacher, e. g., 

culling a flock of hens, testing a sample of milk, 20. 
The tests are mainly by observation and inspection by the 

teacher in : 

Home project work 27 

Farm practice 4 

Assigned jobs 2 

One teacher resorts to written quizzes to test the proficiency of 
his boys in practical skills, and another depends upon a written re- 
port describing the process. 

89 



Such absurdities are an insignificant minority. For the most 
part teachers are using considerable intelligence in judging of pro- 
ficiency, if it be impossible to tell how effectively they are deter- 
mining the necessary degree of proficiency. 

Only 21 of 63 teachers undertake to teach all of the skills which 
they expect their pupils to possess. Tw^o out of three do not at- 
tempt it. Those that they do teach are chosen on the following 
basis : 

Choose from those of importance the skills with which the pupil 
is least familiar, 8. 

Choose only those w^hich may not reasonably be expected as a 
by-product of home farm experience, 10. 

Choose those which are most useful in the conduct of the boys' 
projects, 7. 

Choose those which are specifically adapted to the pupils' pros- 
pective vocation, 10. 

Choose only those for the teaching of which material and op- 
portunity are available, 3. 

Choose those that can be supervised best at the school, 2. 

Choose those in which teacher is proficient, 1. 

Restricting choice to those which can be taught by the teacher 
at the school is, perhaps, the only unjustifiable basis of selection 
recorded. As to the last cited, if more are necessary than the 
teacher is competent to teach, either he should immediately set about 
the acquirement of the necessary competency, or he should resign 
and give the boys a chance with a competent teacher. The others 
are variously reasonable and thoughtful bases for selection. 

Forty-four teachers offered suggestions with regard to the 
proper selection of skills to be required of pupils, all of which are 
worthy of consideration: 

Choose those skills which are most widely and most frequently 

usable, 16. 
Choose those which are specifically required by the particular 

prospective vocation, 13. 
Choose those which the pupil does not normally acquire at 

home, 7. 
Choose according to the individual needs and interests of pupils, 7. 
Choose those requiring least expense in material and equipment, 1. 

90 



In regard to the testing of skills, 35 made suggestions much in 
line with the practices already indicated. All but the last two are 
good. It would seem, however, that specific assignments to jobs 
requiring the use of the desired skill must often be necessary in the 
case of the project and farm employment if the testing is to be 
thoroughly and systematically done. 

Test by the home project 27 

Test by observation of farm practice 4 

Test by assigned jobs 2 

Use a written quiz 1 

Use a written descriptive report 1 

That any teacher can hold to the opinion that he can determine 
a boy's proficiency in culling hens, filing a saw, judging dairy cows, 
pruning apple trees, making a graft, etc., by having the boy write 
a description of what he would do instead of doing it, is hardly 
conceivable. But the academic faith in the written word still 
survives with two of the teachers, even in such matters. 

With respect to the teaching of skills the following suggestions 
are offered: 

Use demonstration more frequently 4 

Use problem method 4 

Drill more frequently 2 

Give heed to the process steps 2 

Teacher should make his procedures conform to community 

practices 2 

Teacher should try himself out in a skill before attempting to 

teach it 2 

All of them are sensible suggestions, but they come from rela- 
tively few teachers. The tendency to neglect motive and to slur 
over the process is not infrequent, as the observation of teaching 
shows. The use of demonstration precedent to practice is surpris- 
ingly infrequent, considering that so large a proportion of teachers 
received their training in the agricultural college. To set a pattern 
of procedure and achievement whereby the trial and error attempts 
may be guided and corrected is an economical, if not very nearly an 
essential, means to successful practice acquirement of skills. The 
suggestions are well worth the careful consideration of teachers and 
teacher trainers. 

91 



Modification of the Course 
It has been noted that teachers have a prepared and approved 
yearly outline of work, and that the majority are using it as a 
guide in their work. Fifty-five teachers have given reasons for 
modifying in greater or less degree, and 54 have cited cases of 
changes. The reasons in order of frequency of citation follow: 

In order to adapt work to the local opportunities for effective 

teaching 21 

In order to adapt work more closely to seasonal opportunities 

for teaching 20 

In order to make a closer adaptation to the needs of the com- 
munity 17 

In order to make more satisfactory adjustment to the time re- 
quirements for learning 9 

To meet the expressed needs of pupils 7 

To conform to the project needs of pupils 7 

To adjust to the particular existing acquirement of pupils — 

their present abilities 5 

To meet deficiencies in equipment 3 

To conform to suggestions of supervisory agents 2 

At suggestion of advisory board 2 

To have more time for competitions 1 

The last seems open to question. Except as competitions have 
superior educative value, no sacrifice of teaching time should be 
made for them. Contest proficiency for the sake of standing in a 
contest has too often, in agricultural teaching, led to neglect of far 
more significant things, and to waste of time and effort in the acquire- 
ment of proficiency of advertising value that is wholly or largely 
useless in the life of the farmer. The other reasons for modifica- 
tion, in the absence of knowledge of what supervisory agents and 
advisory board suggested, are eminently sound. To change merely 
because somebody suggests that you should do so is not wisdom ; to 
change because the suggestion is good, is wisdom on the part of the 
teacher. The commendable flexibility of the program under 
present policy of the State is here indicated. 

The character of changes cited is indicated below : 

Changes in time emphasis 33 

Changes in sequence of topics 26 

Amendments 15 

Emendations 3 

Substitutions 2 

92 



Technology 

An attempt was made, through the questionnaire, to get at the 
general tenor of technological instruction by asking teachers to 
cite, under a selected topic, the details which were treated under it. 
The topics indicated were of reasonably comparable scope, but the 
variations in statement of detail were so great, running from three 
blanket headings to forty-three minutiae, that little could be judged 
of scope from the result. There did appear, however, to be two 
methods of organization, possibly three. When the headings 
appeared in recognizable text-book order and statement, logical 
with reference to the topic, the treatment was cited as academic. 
When such treatment clearly involved a somewhat advanced 
biological, chemical or physical implication, the case was classed as 
scientific. When the organization was made with clear reference 
to a vocational job to be done and the means to doing it, whether 
text derived or not, it was classed as practical. On the basis of such 
judgments the following results appear. No significant difference 
between principals and departmental teachers was noted. 

Examples given 61 

Academic treatment 39 

Scientific treatment 8 

Practical treatment 14 

So far as treatment is to be judged by the submitted organiza- 
tions, it appears that in classroom work in technology a logical and 
somewhat academic treatment prevails — that is, the technology is 
taught in terms of the subject rather than in relation to meeting a 
particular problem or a typical vocational situation. The frequent 
use of texts, as already indicated, would lead to the expectation of 
such treatment. The fact that teachers themselves have been 
prepared in subject rather than problem or job terms makes also for 
the probability. Further, that the fact exists is the report of super- 
visors and observers apart from those employed in the survey. 
Now, such treatment in the case of boys, nine out of ten of whom 
have actual farm experience, as the data on pupils reveal, is by no 
means futile teaching. Further, as appears in the reports on teach- 
ing observed, if continual reference and check in terms of the 
pupils' own experience be made, it may be rather good teaching — 

93 



certainly better than that in most academic subjects. But there is 
no better founded principle of good teaching than this: ''Put to- 
gether those things you expect to function together." If technology 
is to function in connection with operations in farming, if science is 
to function in giving insight and appreciation of farm jobs, then 
technology and science, in the best teaching, must be taught in 
connection with farm operations and farm jobs. Some teachers, it 
is clear, are doing that sort of teaching. At present the supervisory 
and teacher training agents are moving strongly to the securing of 
such teaching. Most clearly their influence appears in the organiza- 
tion of submitted course outlines, many of which before approval, 
are organized in terms of farm operations and farm jobs. The 
evidence is not that the teaching of scientific technology in agricul- 
ture is bad — relatively, it is good — but that considerable room for 
improvement in the making of usable connections or associations 
exists. 

The influence of academic tradition is again evident in reply to 
the following question: " How do you determine that a pupil knows 
what you have tried to teach him of technology?" to which 57 
teachers made answer. Some teachers are using several methods 
of testing so that the frequency indicated surpasses the number of 
teachers. 

By tests, quizzes, examinations (written) 40 

By pupils' work in recitation and discussion 24 

By observation of method and attitude in farm work and the 

solving of farm problems 12 

By requirement of tests in practical application 10 

By observation of project work 9 

The latter three indicate the sounder procedure. No test of 
possession of usable knowledge is safer than the display of ability in 
situations requiring use of that knowledge. Considerable effort 
and ingenuity may be required of the teacher to bring the pupil into 
such situations, but with shop work, laboratory work, field work, 
and the home project established forms of teaching, the possibility 
exists, and it is to be hoped that tests in practical application will 
more and more take the place of written and oral questioning for 
determination of the pupil's possession of appropriate vocational 
technology. If he does not manifest it in the situations where it is 

94 



called for, then, so far as vocational teaching is concerned, he has 
not been taught it, regardless of what he may say or write. 

Social Abilities 

There is a group of abilities quite as important in life as those 
demonstrated in control of things through manual skills, and in under- 
standing and use of ideas or symbols of ideas, namely, abilities in 
dealing with persons. To get some indication as to how far such 
abilities are considered by teachers, in cases where they are mani- 
festly of vocational significance in agriculture, the following ques- 
tions were asked of teachers: (1) "Do your boys get experience in 
buying from persons directly? (2) Do your boys get experience 
in selling to persons directly?" To both questions 58 replied 
yes; 5 no. The answers are distinctly encouraging, though the 
amount of such experience is varied and, on the whole, small. 

The experience in buying and selling was almost exclusively 
through the home projects. The project was reported as the source 
of experience in 57 cases, other forms in one. 

The frequency of buying experiences is as follows : 

Purchasing seed 30 

Purchasing feed 16 

Purchasing stock 11 

Purchasing fertilizer 9 

Purchasing eggs for hatching 9 

Purchasing Hve chicks 5 

Purchasing farm products for resale 1 

Purchasing machinery 1 

Renting land 1 

Purchasing clothes 1 

All of them but the last are abilities vocationally appropriate. 
Selling experiences classify as follows : 

SeUing eggs 12 

Selling crops 11 

SeUing poultry 7 

Selling stock 7 

SeUing milk 2 

Selling pork 1 

Selling honey 1 

Many teachers did not specify beyond the project, so that the 
actual frequency of like items both in buying and selling is much 

95 



higher. In the field of buying and selUng abihties, as well as in 
that of vocational responsibility, the project fills a place that is not 
filled at present by any other form of teaching. 

Another group of social abilities important in vocation is not so 
well taken care of. It is difficult to provide for the boy experience 
in the management of labor on the farm, but less so to provide 
experience as employee. Most boys as adult renters or owners will 
need some ability in managing labor, and will seldom be in the 
position of employee; but most boys before they can become renting 
or owning operators of farms must pass through a more or less pro- 
longed period of employment. Hence both forms of experience are 
probably valuable for boys who prepare to become farmers of one 
sort or another. 

Some boys of the class were reported as getting experience of 
managing labor in 21 cases. 

All boys in the class gained some experience of the sort in 9 cases. 

No boys gained such experience in 33 cases. 

The place of experience in managing labor was specified in only 
15 cases, 9 in the management of the project (mainly in harvesting 
time) and 6 in the management of the home farm for a time. 

Experience as employees was more general, though the type of 
work is not specified in the majority of cases. 

All boys had some experience as employees 38 

Some have had such experience 15 

None have had such experience 10 

Boys worked " for hire " 36 

Worked at farming for hire 16 

Reports from a majority of pupils in each of the 66 schools sur- 
veyed indicate somewhat more definitely the state of affairs in the 
matter of employment experience. Of 947 boys replying to the 
questionnaire card, 576 had worked at varied farm jobs for hire, 8 
at haying only, 8 at caring for poultry only, and 15 at gardening only, 
a total of 607 who had worked at farm work as employees; 178 had 
worked as employees in non-agricultural vocations; 162 had never 

worked as hired employees. 

Number Percent 

Employees on farms 607 64.09 

Employees in other vocations 178 18.79 

Never employed for pay 162 17.12 

96 



Two boys out of three, then, have worked as employees at farm 
jobs, four boys out of five at some hired work, and less than one 
boy in five was without experience in working for a paying employer. 

Fifty-nine teachers replied to the question "Do your boys get 
experience in vocational cooperation?" 

Some, 21; very little, 28; none, 10. 

Certain of the forms of such experience represent genuine co- 
operative (or associational) experience, others do not. Those re- 
garded as most significant are placed first, those as less so, last. 

More Significant Forms 

Cooperation in purchase of supplies 11 

Cooperation in marketing eggs 10 

Cooperation in marketing milk 2 

Membership in Farm Bureau and Dairymen's League 3 

Membership in Agricultural Club 1 

Less Significant Forms 

Cooperating in harvest of project crops 7 

Performing a group job in shop or field 9 

Least Significant 

Using machinery turn about 5 

Helping father on the farm 1 

The forming of marketing and purchasing associations among 
boys in the project work is one of the most promising ways of ac- 
complishing the result of giving cooperative experience. That 
some beginning has been made is encouraging. 

"Do you make rating or judgment of boys in such abilities? 
i. e., buying and seUing, cooperating. 

Yes, 15; no, 34; no answer, 14. 

"How?" By observation of project and farm work 9 

By careful check of accounting records 4 

By interest and activity of boys 1 

By "my feeling" about the boys 1 

Such abiHties are, of course, very difficult to rate, because of 
lack of control of the most essential factors that enter in. But 
7 97 



certainly they are not more difficult than ''attitudes and apprecia- 
tions," to which, in technology, some heed is given by teachers. 
Apparently agricultural teachers, like other teachers, have not 
been acutely conscious of the significance of such abilities. That a 
few are giving them definite attention is a hopeful sign for the im- 
provement of agricultural instruction. 



Consideration of Risks 

To discover indications of the extent to which agricultural 
teachers give consideration to moral and physical risks in the case 
of their pupils three questions were asked, all with regard to matters 
of considerable vocational importance. 

The majority of farmers will be concerned from time to time 
with the management of male and female stock in breeding service. 
Such animals must be handled so that injury comes to neither nor to 
the attendant. Again many farmers must handle vicious or in- 
tractable animals of great strength. Again, many farmers must 
engage from time to time in heavy or prolonged manual labor. 
Though these are vocational necessities, there is certainly risk in 
attempt to train adolescent boys to meet them. 

Group teaching, for example, in the first case, is almost cer- 
tainly unnecessary, and is undesirable for two reasons. To the 
cloistered youth there is undoubted moral shock in such a pro- 
ceeding, normal as the act itself may be; on the other hand, boys 
brought up to a knowledge of sex through the tales of hired men and 
the whispered filth of the school yard may find suggestive stimulus 
that is unwholesome. The individual home project with live stock 
and the ordinary matter-of-fact experience of the home farm 
probably will take care of such matters without class instruction. 

The opinions of teachers and their reasons for and against class 
teaching of the sort are of interest. "Would you ever take a group 
of boys to witness the service of a mare or cow?" Yes, 11; no 52. 

Reasons for doing so: 

Farm boys should understand such matters 6 

Boys in dairying must handle animals 4 

Mature boys may profit by demonstration of proper handling . . 1 

98 



Reasons for not doing so: 

Unnecessary because of home experience 13 

Better taught through individual project 7 

Boys understand principles already 6 

Not desirable with boys of high school age 12 

A doubtful or risky proceeding 10 

Pernicious influence likely 4 

Would rouse antagonism of parents 4 

Not the teacher's responsibility 1 

Not an important matter 5 

"Have you required or would you require a boy to handle a 
mature bull, boar, or vicious horse?" Yes, 2; in special cases, 
yes, 8; no, 53. 

Reasons given for requiring such handling indicate that per- 
mitting rather than requiring is in mind. 

Reasons for doing so: 

If the boy were strong and active and knew the danger 2 

A matter of choice with the boy 4 

No reason given 4 

Reasons for not doing so: 

Risk of injury too great 24 

Most boys insufficiently mature and strong 13 

Benefits incommensurate with risk 7 

Unnecessary in view of home experience 5 

Observation of handling sufficient 3 

Teacher should avoid such responsibility 6 

Parents would rightly object 4 

It is fairly evident that no teacher would force a boy into a 
position of known physical peril merely for the acquirement of a 
probably useful skill. 

The third question was variously interpreted so that the attitude 
of teachers toward a possible overtaxing of pupils is not so clear as 
their attitude in regard to moral risk and physical danger. 

"Have you exempted or would you exempt certain boys from 
farm work required of others? " 

Have not thus far exempted any 25 

Would exempt if need arose 36 

No answer 2 

99 



Reasons for not exempting: 

All pupils take the same course 3 

All pupils need practical experience 2 

Exemption would rouse jealousies 1 

No cause for exemption yet met 2 

Reasons for exempting : 

Boys who lack place or material for work 10 

Some boys already proficient 5 

Different occupations call for different requirements 7 

If present project gives experience special practice not required 7 
Because of physical inability 26 

Cases of exemption cited: 

Pupils disabled 5 

Pupils with weak hearts 7 

Pupils lack strength or size 13 

Boys expecting to be general farmers exempted from special 

occupational practice 3 

Boys already qualified 4 

Boys away for summer excused from project 3 

Boy allowed to use small area in lack of larger 1 

Boy allowed to hire labor while boarding 1 

Evidently physical well-being is not neglected. The reasons 
for not exempting, except the last, will not bear examination. 
On the other hand, certain reasons advanced for exemption if 
difficult to avoid are unsound educationally. A boy who hires 
another to do his work does not profit in training from that work. 
The boy who carries no project loses a most important part of his 
education in agriculture, and, further, under the present law has 
no right to admission or credit in the agricultural course. The first 
reason, given ten times, reveals a weakness in present organization. 
If certain practical work is desirable or necessary for vocational 
training, and the boy at home has not the place and material for 
doing it, then the place and material should be furnished through 
the agency of the school. The case of village boys is being cared for 
under present policy by permitting the substitution of supervised 
employment on an approved farm for the usual animal or crop 
projects carried by farm boys. 

The data submitted give reasonable ground for the conclusion 
that on the whole those boys to whom the agricultural work is 
accessible are being rather well and intelligently taught. 

lOO 



CHAPTER V 
TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE 

Classes 

NO SCHOOL within the scope of the study employed more 
than one teacher of agriculture. Of the 66 teachers em- 
ployed, 41 serve as departmental teachers in high schools; 
25 act as principals as well as teachers — 21 in high schools, four in 
intermediate schools. Departmental teachers of agriculture have 
the same duties in the school as departmental teachers of other 
subjects, barring study hall supervision, but give no instruction in 
subjects other than agricultural. Such instruction is first and uni- 
formly for regularly matriculated pupils of the high school ; second, 
and almost as uniformly for pupils of grade eight and sometimes 
of grade seven also in the elementary schools under the form of 
''junior project" work, not vocational in its aims, but contributing 
in some measure to vocational guidance in agricultural fields; 
third, the conduct of special and short courses for non-matriculated 
students above the age of fourteen — a field of teaching advocated 
for several years by state policy, but thus far developed in very 
few cases. 

Principals in high schools add to such duties those supervisory 
and administrative common to principals of high schools, but give 
no instruction in subjects other than agriculture. Principals of 
intermediate schools are teachers of agriculture, as above, and 
teachers of other subjects as well, and add the duties of the princi- 
palship. 

Salaries 
The salary distribution among the 66 teachers for the year 
1920-21 is shown in the table below. 

lOI 



Amount 


Departmental 
teachers 


Principals of 
high schools 


Principals of 

intermediate and 

junior schools 


$1600 
1700 
1750 
1800 
1850 
1900 
1950 
2000 
2050 
2100 
2150 
2200 
2300 
2350 
2400 
2500 
2600 
3000 



6 
1 
9 
1 
2 

9 
1 
4 
1 
2 
1 

2 

1 
1 




1 
1 


1 
3 
1 


1 
2 
1 
4 
2 
2 
2 


2 
1 






1 













Totals 


41 


21 


4 






Median, $2000 


Median, $2000 


Median, $2350 


Median, $1650 



Note : The salaries of intermediate school principals fall in the lowest quartile 
of all salaries. 



The salary schedule is not quite comparable with that for all men 
teachers in high schools or for all high school principals in places of 
under 4500 population, since the agricultural men are employed for 
twelve months in the year, forty-eight weeks of employment, as 
against the forty weeks of other teachers and principals, and in addi- 
tion, in most cases, must maintain an automobile or other means of 
travel for supervision very largely at their own expense. The cost 
of such travel is estimated at a norm of $250. Few communities 
allow more than the minimum state requirement for travel, $50.00, 
and the more active teachers incur relatively high expenses for this 
item. No consistent records are available. But even with the longer 
period of employment and travel expense incident to the nature of 
teaching, it is safe to say that agricultural teachers and principals are 
the best paid group in the rural schools. The range for rural high 
school principals is from $900 to more than $3000, but the median 



I02 



salary is $1700. Other high school teachers, 91 percent women, 
show a range of from $750-$2500, with a median at $1200. All are 
employed for the academic year only. 

Qualifications 

That they are paid more highly than men of equal technical and 
professional preparation it is not possible to state, for the agricul- 
tural group stands well above the norm for all high school teachers 
in those qualifications. Seventy-four and two-tenths percent of all 
teachers and principals are college graduates; 78.1 percent of the 
teachers in departments, 70.8 percent of the principals. Graduates 
of agricultural colleges are 73.2 percent of the departmental teachers, 
50 percent of the principals. Of rural high school principals, 56.9 
percent are college graduates; of other teachers, 64.16 percent. The 
total staff of rural high schools in terms of preparation divides as fol- 
lows: College graduates, 62 percent; one to four years in college, 9.37 
percent; normal school graduates, 19.73 percent; one to two years 
normal work, 2.16 percent; high school work, only 7.72 percent. 

Teachers Principals 
of depart- also teachers 
Scholastic Preparation, Agricultural Stafif ments of agriculture 

B.S., New York State College of Agriculture 19 9 

B.S., N.Y.S.C. A., plus 1 year's graduate study, N.Y.S.C. A. 2 

B.S., N. Y. S. C. A., plus 2 summers' study, N. Y. S. C. A. . . 1 

B.S.,N. Y.S.C. A., plus 1 summer's study, N.Y.S.C. A... 1 

B. S., N. Y. S. C. A., after graduation at state normal school 1 

B.S.A., College of Agriculture, Syracuse University 3 

B.S.A., College of Agriculture, Syracuse University, plus 1 

year's graduate study, N. Y. S. C. A 1 

B.S.A., College of Agriculture, Syracuse University, plus 1 

summer's study, N. Y. S. C. A 1 

B.S. or B.S.A., other state colleges of agriculture 3 1 

B.S.E., Univ. of III., plus 1 year's graduate study, N. Y. S. 

C. A 1 

Ph.B., Alfred Univ. plus 2 years State School of Agriculture 1 

B.A., Amherst College, plus 1 year agricultural school 1 

B.A., other colleges, plus 2 years in agriculture, N. Y. S. C. A. 1 2 

B.A., Colgate, plus 1 summer agriculture, N. Y. S. C. A 1 

Graduate former agricultural course, Cortland Normal, 4 4 
Graduate former agricultural course, Cortland Normal, plus 

1 summer, N. Y. S. C. A 2 

Graduate other state normal schools, plus 3 summers, N. Y. 

S. C. A J. 2 

Carried forward 39 23 

103 



Teachers Principals 
of depart- also teachers 
Scholastic Preparation, Agricultural Staff ments of agriculture 

Brought forward 39 23 

Graduate other state normal schools, plus 2 summers' study, 

N. Y. S. C. A 1 

Graduate other state normal schools, plus 3 years, College of 

Agriculture, Syracuse University 1 

Graduate other state normal schools, plus 1 year, College 

of Agriculture, Syracuse University 1 

Graduate State School Agriculture, plus 2 summers, N. Y. 

S. C. A _1 _0 

Totals 41 25 

Sixty-three of those men reporting in answer to a questionnaire 
have had the following professional preparation: 

Professional subjects indicated for certification 

1. Educational psychology 

2. Principles of teaching 

3. Methods of teaching agriculture Department 

4. Practice teaching in agriculture Principals teachers 
Those who have studied subjects 1, 2, 3, and 4 2 3 

1, 2, and 3 plus psychology 2 

1, 2, and 3 plus school administration 1 1 

1, 2, and 3 plus school discipline 1 

1, 2, and 3 12 16 

1 and 2 3 3 

1 and 3 1 6 

2 and 3 1 2 

1,2, and 4 1 

3 and 4 1 

2 1 

3 1 1 

No professional studies 4 

~22 ~41 

Summary 

1. Educational psychology 22 30 

2. Principles of teaching 20 29 

3. Methods of teaching agriculture 21 33 

4. Practice teaching in agriculture 2 5 

Other professional subjects 2 3 

Percent studying four subjects 15.9 18.6 14.6 

Percent studying three subjects 46.0 54.5 41.4 

Percent studying two subjects 26.9 22.7 29.3 

Percent studying one subject 4.8 4.2 4.9 

Percent studying no subject 6.4 0.0 9.8 

iOOO" 100.0 100.0 

In professional training, then, the group as a whole stands rela- 
tively high, with the advantage somewhat in favor of the principals 
as against the strictly departmental teachers. 

104 



Teaching Experience 

The following table shows the years of teaching in high school 
or any school above the elementary grades in which 65 teachers 
distribute for the year 1920-21: 



Year of teaching 


All 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


1 


5 


1 


4 


2 


7 


2 


5 


3 


12 


3 


9 


4 


20 


7 


13 


5 


7 


2 


5 


6 


7 


3 


4 


7 


2 


2 





8 


1 





1 


13 


1 


1 





15 


1 


1 





17 


1 


1 





18 


1 


1 







65 


24 


41 




Median year, 


Median year, 


Median year, 




fourth 


fourth 


fourth 



Although half the principals are in their fourth year of teaching 
or below, and half in the fourth year or above, yet the principals 
show a greater range and proportion above, and a less proportion 
below the fourth year than the departmental teachers. As a group, 
they are somewhat more experienced in high school teaching as well 
as somewhat better prepared professionally. Median for all rural 
high school principals, tenth year; for other teachers, third year. 



Technical Training 

On the basis of the State course of study the questionnaire asked 
for a statement of special training through college study, college 
study and special farm experience, and special farm experience only 
in the subjects of the high school course. (Through an error, 
Fruit Growing was omitted from the list.) 

The question was intended to discover that particular "speciali- 

105 



zation in one field, " which is referred to in the divisional statement 
concerning qualifications of teachers. To be specially qualified in 
dairy husbandry, for instance, in a dairy section, is a desirable adap- 
tation in a teacher's placement and service. But, though ''such as 
major interest in college" was suggested, the question has been very 
generously interpreted by teachers, particularly the principals. 
Eighty- three percent of all report specialization in four subjects or 
more, the median number of subjects is six, and 25 percent report 
special training in eight or more subjects. Thus the results are to 
be interpreted as very nearly representing all but the most general 
and elementary instruction or experience in each of the subjects. 
The deficiencies discovered may not be total deficiencies in every 
case, but they are highly significant indices of strength and weakness 
in technical qualifications. 



Poultry Husbandry 

Reporting college study only , 

College and special farm experience 

Special farm experience only 

No technical training of a special nature . . 

Vegetable Gardening 

College study only 

College study and special farm experience 

Special farm experience only 

No technical training of a special nature . . 

Farm Shop Work 

College study only 

College study and special shop experience 

Farm and shop experience only 

No technical training of a special nature . . 



Principals 


Departrc 
teach< 


Percent 




Percent 


43.5 


10 


47.5 


13.0 


3 


15.0 


17.4 


4 


12.5 


26.1 


6 
23 


25.0 
100.0 


100.0 


17.4 


4 


22.5 


4.3 


1 


5.0 


39.1 


9 


17.5 


39.1 


9 

23 


55.0 


100.0 


100.0 


25.4 


6 


20.0 


0.0 





10.0 


30.4 


7 


12.5 


54.2 


10 


57.5 


100.0 


23 


100.0 



19 
6 
5 

10 

40 

9 

2 

7 

22 

40 

8 

4 

5 

23 

40 



Poultry and shop work are taught in all schools and to the largest 
numbers. Vegetable gardening is taught in most schools to the 
beginning classes. The deficiency in poultry and vegetable gar- 

io6 



dening may not be as serious as it appears. On the whole, teachers 
are as well prepared as they need to be in those fields, when in most 
communities only the home garden and the farm flock need be 
considered. Nevertheless, a marked deficiency exists where one 
teacher in four lacks even special experience in managing a flock and 
one in three in managing a garden. The transfer of knowledge and 
skill from animal husbandry and farm crops is hardly enough to 
make for skilled teaching in these enterprises. 

Farm shop work in wood, metal, harness repair, and other work 
of construction and repair is an important and required feature of 
the teaching in every school. More than half the teachers lack 
formal training and other than incidental experience in such work. 
The deficiency is known to the state office and steps have been 
taken to remedy it. The teachers' training course at the New 
York State College of Agriculture now offers and requires special 
instruction in farm shop work for all matriculants. During half 
the year an instructor from the college travels among the teachers 
giving aid in the organization and conduct of the course in high 
schools. Technically, here is the most serious weakness in the 
qualifications of teachers and principals alike. The older teachers 
totally lack special training, though most of them have, under the 
necessity for teaching, developed skills of the routine order. As 
will be noted under "Observation of Teaching, " the least creditable 
work of the teacher is exhibited in a field of teaching affecting the 
largest number of boys, and one which, because of the material 
products observable, is likely to be that in which his community 
judges most frequently of his success. 



Farm crops 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


College study only 


30.4 

8.7 

39.1 

21.8 


7 
2 
9 
5 


30.0 
15.0 
20.0 
35.0 


12 


College study and special farm experience . . . 
Special farm experience only 


6 

8 


No technical training of a special nature. . . . 


14 




100.0 


23 


100.0 


40 



107 



The work of the second year of the course centers about farm 
crops and the control of them through soils management. The 
importance of crops in most communities is paramount, and the 
deficiency appears large, as in the case of vegetable gardening and 
to a less extent poultry. Normal school and sometimes State 
school programs do not include special courses in these subjects, 
but rather general elementary courses. In the summer work of the 
college of agriculture only elementary courses are likely to be 
offered. The college man may not report such studies as special 
preparation, though it appears that the normal school man does so, 
and is also more likely to consider that farm experience alone has 
given him special training. The differences in technical training 
between principals and departmental teachers is roughly propor- 
tionate to the difference in degree of college training. But if the 
factors above mentioned are operative, as in the judgment of the 
reader of questionnaire replies they are, then the advantage of the 
departmental teachers over principals is greater than the figures 
reveal. The same difference appears to hold roughly throughout 
the course requirements in agricultural subjects, with few exceptions. 



Animal Husbandry 

College study only 

College study and special farm experience 

Special farm experience only 

No technical training of a special nature . . 

Dairy Husbandry 

College study only , 

College study and special farm experience 

Special farm experience only 

No technical training of a special nature . . , 



Principals 



Percent 

43.5 

8.7 

30.4 

17.4 

100.0 

34.7 

4.3 

17.4 

43.6 

100.0 



10 

2 
7 
4 

23 



1 

4 

10 

23 



Departmental 
teachers 



Percent 
30.0 
17.5 

7.5 
45.0 

100.0 

27.5 
17.5 
22.5 
32.5 

100.0 



12 

7 

3 

18 

40 

11 
7 
9 

13 

40 



In most regions of the State dairy husbandry will be a major en- 
terprise of farming, and there would seem to be need of special 
training in that field, as in the related field of farm crops. For 
most sections swine raising, sheep raising, horse raising, are minor 

io8 



enterprises. Thus, viewing the State as a field for teachers, the 
deficiency in dairy husbandry is probably more serious than that in 
animal husbandry. Fewer boys take the subject, since it is placed 
in the third year, than take the relatively unimportant vocational 
work in poultry. 

Fruit growing is a feature of third-year work in all schools, 
but unfortunately was omitted from the list. Eleven men reported 
special qualifications in fruit growing. 



Agricultural engineering 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


College study only 


Percent 

34.8 

0.0 

4.3 

60.9 


8 



1 

14 


Percent 
17.5 
10.0 
12.5 
60.0 


7 


College study and special farm experience. . . 
Special farm experience only 


4 
5 


No technical training of a special nature .... 


24 




100.0 


23 


100.0 


40 



Agricultural engineering as a fourth-year study as yet reaches a 
relatively small number of boys. Its significance, however, in farm 
operations in most types of farming is large. There is a consider- 
able technology and a technique with regard to engines particularly, 
now made available to agricultural college students, and required in 
the teacher training course at the New York State College of 
Agriculture, which is evidently not in possession of the older college 
graduates and the normal school men. Along with that in farm 
shop provision for this deficiency deserves serious consideration. 



Farm management 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


College study only 


Percent 

60.9 

4.3 

17.4 

17.4 


14 
1 
4 
4 


Percent 

35.0 

7.5 

17.5 

40.0 


14 


College study and special farm experience . . . 
Special farm experience only 


3 

7 


No technical training of a special nature 


16 




100.0 


23 


100.0 


40 



109 



Relatively few boys have as yet reached the stage of instruction 
in farm management. Considering the recent development of the 
technology and its requirement of prospective teachers, the showing 
is encouraging. That principals have the advantage of depart- 
mental teachers in this field of technology is probably accounted 
for by the fact that it is a regularly offered summer course at the 
New York State College of Agriculture by the country's foremost 
department and is, accordingly, one of the first courses to be taken 
up by men returning to college for summer work, as the principals 
so largely have done. 

As an index to the frequency with which boys are taught the 
various subjects of the course the following table covering the past 
six years is significant. Even in the older schools two boys in three 
are enrolled for the work of the first two years. 

Number Schools Offering Work of the Successive Years 



Date 


First year 


Second year 


Third year 


Fourth year 


1915-16 


42 


26 


23 


13 


1916-17 


38 


39 


24 


19 


1917-18 


40 


26 


24 


19 


1918-19 


30 


31 


18 


19 


1919-20 


44 


23 


33 


11 


1920-21 


47 


48 


22 


32 


Total 


241 


193 


144 


113 


Percentage .... 


34.88 


27.93 


20.85 


16.54 



In connection with the organization of the course the figures 
must be noted. That minor subjects of the first year particularly 
reach by far the largest number of pupils is, under a vocational 
hypothesis, a token of maladjustment. 



Farm Experience 

The data of farm experience of teachers in the field are not well 
recorded at the Albany ofiice, but it is possible to indicate the 
general scope of it. The State's requirement of two years of farm 
experience is lived up to more strictly than that of graduation from 
a recognized college of agriculture or an "equivalent" technical 



no 



preparation, except ''equivalent" be very generously interpreted, 
as it has been under pressure of shortage of teachers during the war 
years. Assuming that the statement, "brought up on a general 
farm," indicates from six to ten years of actual participation in 
farm work, a not very certain classification of the farm experience of 
agricultural teachers has been worked out. The type of experience 
is worked out from statements like the following: (1) "General, 
poultry, and fruit farm, ten years. " (2) " General farm four years, 
poultry and truck farm one year, dairy farm two years." Each 
type mentioned is reported separately. 



Farm experience in years 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


All 


16 or more 


1 

19 
1 


1 
1 


1 
7 
29 
2 
1 
1 




2 


11-15 inclusive 


7 


6-10 '* 


48 


5 


3 


4 

3 years 


1 
1 


8 summers 


1 


6 summers 


1 








23 


41 


64 



Kinds of Experience by Types of Farming Specified 




Frequencies 




Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


All 


General (diversified crop and 
stock) 


17 
5 
5 
4 
2 
1 
1 


1 


26 
11 
11 

2 
2 
1 

1 

5 


43 


Dairy farming 


16 


Fruit farming 


16 


Poultry farming 


6 


Market garden and truck . . . 
Small fruit 


4 
2 


Cotton growing 


1 


Live stock ranch 


1 


Reporting experience as farm 
operator 


6 







III 



Preparation in Science 
It is important in vocational teaching that an insight and appre- 
ciation of the impHcations of the vocation and its jobs socially and 
in terms of science be developed; and, further, that the teachers 
shall be able to follow the social and scientific interests of pupils to a 
point at least that leads to a close touch with studies under other 
teachers in the high school. As an indication of potential ability 
to do this thing, data were sought in regard to preparation in certain 
social, physical, and biological sciences in greater or less degree re- 
lated to agriculture, through the questionnaire. Teachers were 
asked to report the place of study, college (including normal 
schools), and secondary schools. 



Economics 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


Studied in college only 


Percent 

60.9 

0.0 

26.1 

13.0 


14 

6 
3 


Percent 

72.5 

5.0 

15.0 

7.5 


29 


Studied in college and secondary school . . 

Studied in secondary school only 

Not studied under formal training 


2 
6 
3 




100.0 


23 


100.0 


40 



The influence of the common requirement of economics in college 
courses is shown here. That teachers trained in economics in 
secondary school only are sufficiently qualified to meet the require- 
ments set above is doubtful. 



Sociology 



Studied in college only 

Studied in college and secondary school . . 

Studies in secondary school only 

Not studied 



Principals 



Percent 

26.1 
0.0 
0.0 

74.9 



100.0 



6 





17 



23 



Departmental 
teachers 



Percent 

22.5 

0.0 

10.0 

67.5 



100.0 



9 

4 

27 



40 



112 



Studies in sociology, rural and other, have only recently been 
made part of the program of studies of the agricultural colleges. 
Work in that field is now a requirement of the teacher training cur- 
riculum at the New York State College of Agriculture. Only recent 
graduates, however, have benefited by the course. Probably the 
preparation here will compare favorably with that of any group of 
high school teachers, but the deficiency is still large. 

Studies in Physical and Biological Sciences 



Chemistry 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


Studied in college only 

Studied in college and secondary school . . 

Studied in secondary school only 

Not studied 


Percent 

52.2 

21.7 

26.1 

0.0 


12 
5 
6 



Percent 
45.0 
22.5 
25.0 

7.5 


18 
9 

10 
3 








100.0 


23 


100.0 


40 



The lack of college training on the part of some teachers is 
manifest here. It is surprising, however, that any men at all 
should be teaching agriculture without an elementary knowledge of 
chemistry, and that one in four should be teaching with only an 
elementary knowledge of it. 



Physics 



Studied in college only 

Studied in college and secondary school . 

Studied in secondary school only 

Not studied 



Principals 



Percent 

39.1 

30.4 

21.7 

8.7 



100.0 



23 



Departmental 
teachers 



Percent 

27.5 

27.5 

42.5 

2.5 



100.0 



11 

11 

17 

1 



40 



Perhaps physics is less manifestly related to the problems of 

agriculture apart from shop work and engineering than chemistry. 
8 113 



An elementary knowledge is probably sufficient for class purposes, 
but the teacher so limited will be taxed by the inquiring exceptional 
pupil, who is entitled to guidance. Three men, again, are teaching 
without knowledge of one of the fundamental sciences. 



Botany 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


Studied in college only 

Studied in college and secondary school. . 

Studied in secondary school only 

Not studied 


Percent 
43.5 
21.7 
21.7 
13.0 


10 

5 
5 
3 


Percent 

45.0 

22.5 

27.5 

5.0 


18 

9 

11 

2 








100.0 


23 


100.0 


40 



Physiological botany is of great service in enlightening students 
of agriculture. Morphological botany, the type usual to the 
secondary school, much less so. One teacher in three then is limited 
or totally deficient in resources here. 



Zoology 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


Studied in college only 

Studied in college and secondary school . . 

Studied in secondary school only 

Not studied 


Percent 

39.1 

8.7 

30.4 

21.8 


9 

2 
7 
5 


Percent 
27.5 
15.0 
25.0 

32.5 


11 

6 
10 
13 








100.0 


23 


100.0 


40 



Systematic zoology is of very little use in the teaching of agri- 
culture if the biologic evolutionary viewpoint have been otherwise 
acquired, as it usually is in college courses. The fact, then, that three 
men out of five are not educated beyond the most formal and 
elementary stage in this field is not very significant from the view- 
point of successful teaching of vocational agriculture. 

114 



Physiology (including animal 
physiology) 



Studied in college only 

Studied in college and secondary school 

Studied in secondary school only 

Not studied 



Principals 


Depart! 
teacl 


Percent 




Percent 


30.3 


7 


30.0 


17.4 


4 


15.0 


43.5 


10 


52.5 


8.7 


2 


2.5 


100.0 


23 


100.0 



12 
6 

21 
1 



40 



Physiology among the biological sciences compares with chemis- 
try among the physical in giving resource to the teacher of agri- 
culture. Probably the showing here is not so weak as it seems, since 
in feeding courses a good deal of rather fundamental physiology is 
developed. But the non-college men appear to be handicapped. 



Geology 


Principals 


Departmental 
teachers 


Studied in college only 


Percent 

39.1 

4.3 

30.4 

26.1 


9 
1 
7 
6 


Percent 
57.5 
10.0 
10.0 
22.5 


23 


Studied in college and secondary school 

Studied in secondary school only 

Not studied 


4 
4 
9 








100.0 


23 


100.0 


40 



In terms of vocational efficiency knowledge of geology is probably 
not very significant for the farmer. In terms of vocational insight 
and appreciation, through its relation to soils and topography, it 
may mean a good deal to the exceptional man. In college courses 
in soils a good deal of geologic information, often beyond that 
obtainable in geology courses in secondary schools is developed, so 
that the agricultural college graduate, who practically always takes 
such courses, is not likely to be handicapped, even if he have not 
studied geology. The deficiency here is much less significant than 
in chemistry. 

IIS 



A comparison between professional preparation and technical 
preparation of agricultural teachers is not very significant even 
were it possible to make a fair one. More than 90 percent of all 
teachers, and of either group, have pursued some professional 
studies, 85 percent have pursued studies directly pertinent to the 
teaching of agriculture in the high school. On the other hand, 
100 percent have had some technical training in agriculture, and all 
have had farm experience. But in terms, even, of the general subjects 
of the course which they are supposed to teach, deficiencies are out- 
standing. That men should be accepted as qualified to teach farm 
shop work, farm crops, dairy husbandry, agricultural engineering, 
etc., who have had no preparation for such work, is a distinct 
menace to the success of vocational teaching. That we have a 
parallel in the case of other teachers in the high school is no justifi- 
cation. 

Desirable Requirements 

It is not now possible for a man to graduate from the approved 
teacher training curriculum at the New York State College of 
Agriculture who has the subject deficiencies discovered above. 
But it is not yet required that a teacher approved for State aid shall 
meet all those requirements. If he can present evidence of two 
years' experience in farming, even though that experience be on a 
market garden farm, and that he is a graduate of an agricultural 
college, having studied methods of teaching, he may be approved if 
the local board desires to appoint him to teaching in a dairy region, 
even if he has made no study of dairy husbandry as such and has no 
farm experience in dairy work. It would seem that specific quali- 
fications in experience, in college study, and in professional study, 
in terms of the State course plan, should be the minimum qualifi- 
cation required for approval and granting of State aid. 

A further modification of qualifications necessary seems clear. 
A man going into a fruit growing community, for instance, or into a 
truck-raising community, should be required to give evidence of par- 
ticular ability to teach fruit growing and truck growing respectively. 

The present standards of approval are undoubtedly much in ad- 
vance of those five and ten years back, if they do not quite keep 
pace with the provisions for training of teachers. The vagueness of 

ii6 



former standards in terms of content of preparation, the pressure to 
fill all possible positions in earlier days, and particularly the at- 
tempt to make up for the deficiency of teachers through the period 
of the war account for the status revealed. Undoubtedly many of 
the men now in the field, whose training shows marked deficiency 
on the paper record, have, under the stimulus of the necessity for 
teaching, made up through their own initiative in study a consider- 
able portion of their deficiencies. But that their opportunities, 
through summer courses and others, to make up technical as well as 
professional deficiencies, should be increased, is certain; that known 
deficiencies be made up insisted upon, vital, if the pupils enrolled in 
agriculture are to have the opportunities to which they are entitled. 

The supervisory agents are at present very much alive to the 
necessity for meeting the professional requirements, but with re- 
spect to specific technical requirements, as indicated by the general 
plan of the job of the agricultural teacher in this State, much less so. 
A candidate now must give evidence that he has pursued profes- 
sional studies pertinent to the teaching of agriculture before enter- 
ing upon his work, but he is not yet required to give evidence of 
specific technical subject preparation. 

Undoubtedly there is administrative difficulty in maintaining a 
standard specifically appropriate even to the course program. 
Local school boards often have their strong preferences, not merely 
in terms of the lower priced candidate. But that any school 
board has the right to appoint a man known not to be qualified for 
the teaching which they propose to inaugurate or have already on 
the program is doubtful. Certainly under a State policy of aid 
to enlarge educational opportunities none should be granted to a 
community which knowingly chooses the unqualified as against the 
qualified man. A memorandum or other distinct record of under- 
standing with school boards, making clear that a teacher qualified 
specifically to teach those subjects for which the accepted course 
calls, is quite as definitely a necessity in meeting requirements for 
aid as a certain sized room, a certain list of tools, and a certain 
minimum enrolment, might be of help. That the State is extend- 
ing an opportunity rather than limiting a bonus will probably be 
made more generally clear than formerly under the newly adopted 

117 



plan of preliminary conference and survey study already referred to. 
Pupils are entitled to as nearly a "full loaf" as the supply of quali- 
fied men permits. 

Teachers ' Evaluations of Preparation 

In reference to the utility of specific preparation in technical 
subjects, 60 of the 63 teachers replying to the questionnaire make 
the positive assertion that it has been of help to them, three do not 
answer the question. 

Asked as to the specific subjects in the professional field which 
had proved helpful in their school work, replies were as follows: 



Taking the subject 



Educational psychology, 52 
Principles of teaching, 49 . . 
Teaching of agriculture, 54 
Practice teaching, 7 




Percentage 



53.8 
69.2 
70.4 

71.4 



Asked as to which of the sciences were helpful in laying out the 
work of teaching, replies were as follows: 



Taking the subject 



Economics, 57 , 
Sociology, 19. , 
Chemistry, 58. 
Physics, 60 . . . 
Botany, 58. . . 
Zoology, 46 . . . 
Physiology, 60 
Geology, 48 . . . 



Report it 
helpful 


Percentage 


43 


75.4 


15 


78.9 


58 


100.0 


54 


90.0 


57 


98.3 


34 


73.9 


39 


65.0 


43 


89.5 



Not all the replies were very discriminating in the last case, 
about half the teachers giving the reply ''all" as referring to the 
sciences studied. Nevertheless, it is interesting to note the high 
values set, particularly on chemistry, physics, botany, and geology, 
and the relatively low value on physiology. The surveyor attributes 

ii8 



this latter low valuation to the fact that so many teachers studied 
only the human physiology of the public school. 

Reported Deficiencies 
In reply to the question, "What deficiencies, if any, in training, 
agricultural or professional, stand out most clearly in your present 
job ?" the replies are classified as follows: 



Principals 



Professional Deficiencies 

Lack of professional training 

Lack of training in project teaching 

Lack of training in teaching methods 

Lack of training in planning work 

Lack of training in supervision 

Lack of educational psychology 

Lack of practice teaching 

Lack of specific application in professional 
subjects 

Technical Deficiencies 

Lack of training in agricultural engineering . . 

Lack of training in farm shop work 

Lack of training in farm management 

Lack of training in farm crops 

Lack of training in vegetable gardening 

Lack of training in soils 

Lack of training in chemistry 

Lack of training in poultry 

Lack of training in animal husbandry 

Lack of training in animal diseases 

Lack of training in grape growing 

Lack of training in entomology and pathology 

General lack of agricultural training 

Too narrow an agricultural training 

Lack of practical work in college training . . . . 

Other Deficiencies and Difficulties 

Lack of college education 

Laziness 

Lack of interest in the teaching side 

Lack of ability to teach practical work in a 

class room 

Inability to play politics 

Lack of time for keeping up to date 

Lack of time to visit other schools 

Conflicting interests as teacher and principal 



Depart- 
mental 
teachers 



3 


5 


2 


5 


2 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


5 





1 


3 


3 


1 


2 


1 


2 





1 





1 


1 


1 


1 


3 





2 





1 



119 



Numerous teachers report several deficiencies, but three princi- 
pals and ten departmental teachers find no deficiencies to report. 
That there is a very close correlation between deficiencies felt and 
deficiencies actual is not to be assumed. The relatively unqualified 
teacher may be unaware of any deficiencies, and the well-qualified 
teacher acutely aware of what he regards as conspicuous deficiencies. 
But it is worth noting, in spite of the emphasis that has been given 
to professional training and the need for it in the supervisory work 
of the past three years, that the reports of deficiencies in technical 
preparation outnumber those in professional training. The general 
proposition that increased attention to technical qualifications is 
desirable is supported by the judgment of the teachers. 

In reply to the question, "Of what use is your knowledge of them 
[the sciences] to your pupils?" nine teachers indicate only a belief 
in their utility, the rest answer under the following classification, 
one teacher often giving several suggestions: 

Gives the teacher resourcefulness in answering the question "why?" 51 

Gives pupils confidence in the teacher's knowledge 20 

Assists pupils to correlate their practical problems with science 12 

Enables them to establish a basic understanding of farm problems and 

practices 6 

Stimulates pupils to growth in knowledge 2 

Enables the solution of practical problems 6 

There seems to be confirmed here the already implied belief of 
teachers in the utility of preparation in the sciences as an aid to 
vocational teaching in agriculture. 

Professional Improvement 

Concerning the chief means at present in use for the improve- 
ment of teachers in service teachers were asked: "Do you find the 
following of real use to you?" 

Question Reply 

(a) Visits of supervisors? Yes, 58; No, 3; No ans., 2 

(b) Visits of teacher training agents? Yes, 36; No, 4; No ans., 26 

(c) Conferences on teaching? Yes, 56; No, 2; No ans., 5 

(d) The Agricultural Teachers' Bulletin? Yes, 57; No, 2; No ans., 4 

(e) Bulletins of the State Dept. of Education? Yes, 55; No, 2; No ans., 6 
(/) Publications from Teacher Training Depart- 
ment at Cornell? Yes, 41; No, 7; No ans., 15 

(g) Other? 

I20 



Under this head the following were reported: 

Current publications in agriculture 7 

Current educational publications 5 

Publications of Federal Board 3 

Reports of conference committees 6 

Experience of " dirt farmers " 5 

In order to interpret the attitude of teachers toward improvement 
in service a few words of explanation in regard to each point may be 
of help. 

(a) Every teacher in the list, including the most recent appointees, 
had experienced the visiting of the supervisory specialists. The 
teachers favor that sort of assistance. Further, among suggestions 
offered by teachers with reference to supervision the most frequent 
are that visits should come oftener and last longer. 

(b) Visits of teacher training agents are less frequent, but ordin- 
arily more prolonged, than those of supervisory specialists. Fur- 
ther, they are confined mainly to the follow-up of graduates of the 
teacher training course at the State College of Agriculture. Thus 
the 40 men replying to the question probably represent all who have 
had such visits. In general such visitors deal with a particular 
problem or group of problems in which teacher or supervisor has 
discovered that help is needed. Teachers again are fairly unani- 
mous in acceptance of the worth of this accessory supervision. 

In addition to greater frequency and length of visits, suggestions 
are made that more time of visitors should be given to assistance in 
project work, and that help should be positively constructive and 
practical. 

(c) The regional and annual conferences of teachers have been 
participated in by all but the most recent appointees. Of sugges- 
tions in regard to them, the most common is that they be held more 
frequently. In addition it is suggested that less lecturing and more 
continuously active work by teachers are desirable, and that provi- 
sion for expenses be made on the same basis as is used for attendance 
of district superintendents upon their conferences. 

(d) The monthly bulletin for teachers of agriculture, in the form 
of a four- to eight-page ''news letter," with articles professional and 
technical, is approved. It is noteworthy that with the discontinua- 

121 



tion for lack of funds of that publication in 1921, the teachers' as- 
sociation has undertaken the continuation at its own expense. 

(e) Bulletins of the State department, mainly those dealing with 
the administrative organization of a department and the conduct of 
project work are approved as useful and more of the type are sug- 
gested. In addition teachers suggest the preparation of a guide to 
a yearly reading course in professional and technical publications 
and the installation of a circulating professional library for teachers 
of agriculture. One suggests a magazine dealing with the content 
and method of agricultural instruction. 



Nature of work 



Professional 

Reading and attendance at meetings 

Reading and summer school attendance 

Work for M. S. degree 

Studying school law 

Studying school administration 

Professional and technical 

Working for B. S. in agriculture 

Reading both agricultural and educational .... 

Reading and summer school attendance 

Reading and running a farm 

Technical 

Farming 

Raising poultry and gardening 

Raising poultry and studying 

Managing a commercial orchard 

Reading in agriculture 

Taking correspondence course in farm manage 

ment 

Surveying the community 

Summer course in gardening 

Percent of all in each group 



All 



37 



58.7 



Principals 



13 



56.5 



Depart- 
mental 
teachers 



24 



60.0 



(/) There are no strictly departmental pubHcations under (/"), so 
that the question was not wholly appropriate. Reprint circulars 



122 



dealing with teaching methods, however, have been distributed 
from time to time, and those are evidently in the minds of teachers 
who make reply to the question. 

Teachers were asked to make suggestions with regard to bettering 
means of professional improvement. The most frequent sugges- 
tions were that provision should be made to enable teachers to at- 
tend summer sessions at the State College of Agriculture, and that 
those sessions should include practical and appropriate courses, 
both professional and technical, whereby teachers may make up 
deficiencies handicapping them in their work. 

Thirty-seven of 63 teachers reported themselves engaged in or 
having immediately in prospect (May, 1921) work of professional 
improvement. The reports include both technical and professional 
studies and other activities likely to add to the proficiency of the 
teacher. 

That three teachers out of five are attempting, in ways additional 
to those regularly provided by the State system of supervision, to 
strengthen themselves in their work is further evidence of a good 
professional spirit among the teachers of agriculture of the State. 
That, in spite of obvious deficiencies, the teachers of agriculture are, 
on the whole, a well-selected group, of qualifications technical, pro- 
fessional, and in the teaching spirit, above the norm of teachers in 
the high schools of the rural communities is fairly evident from the 
preceding study. 

Stability and Tenure 

It is not possible, with data available for other high school 
teachers, to determine how teachers of agriculture compare in their 
tendency to stay in the same field of work, in the number of changes 
they have made from school to school, in the maximum tenure and 
minimum tenure in any one school, and in length of tenure in the 
present position. Certainly the turnover of agricultural teachers 
has been rapid, particularly during the period of the war, but there 
is no present means of telling whether it has been more or less rapid 
than with other men in high schools. 

Of 76 teachers engaged in the teaching of agriculture under State 
and Federal aid and approval in New York, May, 1921, the follow- 

123 



ing table shows the period of service in the same kind of work in the 

State: 

In the first year of service 16 

In the second year of service 10 

In the third year of service 12 

In the fourth year of service 19 

In the fifth year of service 6 

In the sixth or a later year of service 13 

~76 

Half then are in third year or below, half in fourth year or above. 
Of teachers who have been in like service in the schools of the 
State since October, 1915, but have left the work or the State since 
that time, there left with the — 

First year of service 30 

Second year of service 33 

Third year of service 14 

Fourth year of service 11 

Fifth year of service 6 

"94 
Of the 170 teachers employed during that time the record follows: 





1915-16 


1916-17 


1917-18 


1918-19 


1919-20 


1920-21 




H 


First recorded in service 

Left the service in New 

York State 


65 
13 


25 
21 


37 
28 


14 
12 


12 
18 


17 

2 


170 
94 


At present in service 
(May, 1921) 














76 



The effect of the war and accompanying industrial conditions 
appears very clearly in the rapidity of turnover. As suggestive of 
the same effect, the following table is offered: 

Left the service for a time, but returned to it : 

For 1916-17 2 

For 1916-17 and 1917-18 1 

For 1917-18 1 

For 1917-18 and 1918-19 2 

For 1918-19 9 

For 1918-19 and 1919-20 5 

For 1919-20 _1 

21 

124 



Of the 170 teachers in service during the past six years, there — 

Made no change of position Ill 

Changed position once 51 

Changed position twice 5 

Changed position three times 3 

170 

Longest in Shortest in 

one school one school 

1 year or less 62 93 

2 years or more than one 49 45 

3 years or more than two 39 22 

4 years or more than three 17 7 

5 years or more than four 2 2 

6 years 1 1 

TtO 170 

Teachers at work in May, 1921, show much the same stability 

and tenure. 

No change of position 42 

Changed position once 31 

Changed position twice 1 

Changed position three times 2 

"76 

Longest in Shortest in 

one school one school 

1 year or less 24 39 

2 years or more than one 16 18 

3 years or more than two 24 14 

4 years or more than three 10 3 

5 years or more than four 1 1 

6 years 1 1 

"76 ~76 

As compared with the whole group of teachers, those now at work 
show a slightly longer tenure in one school, those staying two years 
or more being for the whole group 62.9 percent, for present teachers, 
68.4 percent. 

Yet in tenure of the present job the 76 teachers show the following 

distribution : 

Percent 

First year 30 39.47 

Second year 19 25.00 

Third year 18 23.68 

Fourth year 7 9.21 

Fifth year 1 1.32 

Sixth year 1 1.32 

"76 100.00 

125 



The last is a matter of considerable significance. It is the work 
of the teacher of agriculture to adapt his course to the needs of the 
region in which his pupils live, and to make the most of his com- 
munity resources in teaching. Accordingly, what he teaches and 
how he teaches it is in considerable measure dependent upon an 
intimate knowledge of his community. The teacher in the first 
year cannot have the intimate knowledge that is desirable, yet one 
teacher in three is in his first year with the community for which 
and through which he works. The State supervisory force has not 
missed the significance of the state of affairs. It is now the first 
duty of the teacher, entering upon employment by August first if 
possible, to make a survey of the farm interests of the region served 
by the school. A form and a suggestive system of procedure are 
furnished by the State office, and good results should come of the 
study. In addition the law provides that the teacher shall work 
with an advisory board of farmers in determining what is most 
desirable to teach, and what resources are most effectively usable. 
Sixty-one of the 63 teachers replying to the questionnaire report the 
appointment of such a board, and 49 have already found it of use to 
them. But both the survey study and the advisory board are re- 
cently inaugurated measures to increasing the efficiency of teaching, 
and their effect is prospective rather than actual. 

A further indication of the turnover of teachers is given by the 
following figures dating back to 1915 (October) : 

Seventy-six courses in operation May, 1921: 

In operation one year 11 

" " two years 10 

" " three years 3 

" " four years 6 

" " five years 4 

" *' six years or more 42 

"76 

Number of teachers employed in these schools during past six 

years: 

Schools 

Employing one teacher 23 

" two teachers 14 

" three teachers 30 

" four teachers 9 

"76 

126 



The salary tables and medians already reported indicate for 
agricultural teachers, as with all other teachers during recent years, 
a rather marked advance in compensation, in terms of dollars, if 
not in terms of command of resources. Figures for 1 13 teachers who 
have been in service more than one year show the following average 
annual increases in salary during the term of service: 



Average annual increase 


Number of teachers re- 


in dollars 


ceiving 


such increases 


-300 




1 


-150 




1 


-100 




1 







10 


50- 99 




7 


100-149 




23 


150-199 




13 


200-249 




21 (median) 


250-299 




11 


300-349 




10 


350-399 




2 


400-449 




3 


450-499 




1 


500 and over 




9 



113 

Fifty-six of the teachers have had an annual increase of $199 or 
less, 57, an annual increase of $200 or more. Thirteen teachers had 
no increase at all or a reduction of salary; 13 received $400 or better 
annual increase. Of the lowest 13, 11 have left the service; of the 
upper 13, two. Of those receiving an actual advance of less than 
$200 average, 31 have left the service. Of those receiving an aver- 
age advance of $200 or more, but less than $400, seventeen have 
left the service. In the lower scale of advance, then, three of every 
four teachers have left the service; in the upper scale one in three 
has left the service. The effect of substantial advance yearly in 
holding men is clearly evident, as well as the reverse. A failure to 
maintain an advance of $200 has meant three to one odds against 
retaining the man; maintaining an advance above $200 has meant 
two to one odds favoring retention. In the face of the demand for 
men and agriculturally trained men during the past six years schools 
have had not only to increase the salary scale rapidly, mainly 
through State and Federal funds, to be sure, but have had to main- 

127 



tain a median rate of advance of $200 yearly. It is hardly to be 
expected that such a rate can be maintained. 

Where the men, successful and unsuccessful, go after leaving the 
high school service in New York State is a matter of some interest. 
No complete data are of record. The following have been secured, 
however, through various inquiry : 

Men Who Have Left the Service of the High Schools 
Educational Service 

a) Now teaching in State colleges of agriculture 4 

b) Now teaching in State or other technical schools 9 

c) Now teaching in high schools in other States 11 

d) Now engaged in training teachers of agriculture 4 

e) Now engaged in supervision of agricultural teaching 5 

/) Now engaged in graduate work in agricultural education. 2 

g) Now engaged in farm bureau work 14 

h) Now engaged as State extension administrators 3 

Other 

State milk inspector 1 

Now agents of farmers' co-operative associations 3 

Now practising farmers 19 

Incapacitated through bad health 2 

Deceased 6 

Farm machinery agent 1 

Teaching other than agricultural 1 

Practising law 1 

Categories (a) to (h) inclusive are within the field of agricultural 
education. All but (c) and (J) provide salaries in advance of those 
paid by high schools. Two men out of three, then, appear to be 
going on with the work of service in agricultural education at an 
increased salary after leaving the work of the high schools. Evi- 
dently teaching as a stop gap until discovery of a more renumera- 
tive opening in an unrelated field is not practised in the vocational 
departments of New York high schools. Further, the experience 
of agricultural teaching is an undoubted asset in the occupations of 
farming and association work, and the retention of these men in the 
field of rural activity an altogether creditable showing. 

Schedule 

The teaching schedule of teachers and principals in agriculture is 
shown below for all schools in 1920-21. It does not include junior 
project teaching, or short course work in the two instances where 

128 



such was given, nor does it account for activities in supervision by 
principals or for outside studies of farms, visits to projects, prepara- 
tion of material, etc., to which the time of the teacher of agriculture 
is supposed to be largely devoted. Only the regular periods of 
class meetings are included. Reduced to the single forty-five 
minute period basis, they show as follows: 

Periods of Number of 

vocational teaching teachers 

2 5 

4 62 

6 7 

8 1 

The median teaching load of all principals in rural high schools is 
5 periods; of all teachers including principals 6.4 periods. Thus, 
within the walls of the schoolhouse the teacher of agriculture has 
less than the normal load. To do the work that he should do it is 
doubtful that the load can be increased. The five teachers who 
have only two periods are in the first year of the establishment of 
work in school. During such a year it is possible that a prorating 
of salary to allow teaching in other subjects may be useful. 

In regard to schedule, only four teachers gave opinion that a 
greater total of hours was necessary; five that a less total was desir- 
able to meet conditions in the school. Sixteen, however, expressed 
the opinion that a new distribution was desirable. 

Most of the suggestions had to do with an arrangement which 
would leave boys free to spend a longer time, when necessary, on 
field trips or practicums, or on the project at harvest and planting 
time. They were as follows : 

Clear a half day for agricultural classes 5 

Give lower classes one-half day clear, upper classes the other. . 2 

Use end periods of each half-day 3 

Full half-day fall and spring, shorter periods in winter 2 

Distribute by single and double periods 2 

Distribute by single and quadruple periods 1 

Distribute by double and triple periods 1 

The fourth suggestion appears the most flexible and adaptable to 
seasonal needs, but is somewhat upsetting to the academic concep- 
tion of schedule. The first three may accomplish the same results if 
seasonal variation in the use of time be permitted the teacher. 
9 129 



CHAPTER VI 
ENROLMENT— AGRICULTURE 

THE total enrolment for 7 1 departments of agriculture in high 
schools and four intermediate schools in operation in May, 
1920-21, was 1,228. Only 14 girls were reported from four 
schools as follows: 1 girl, 2 schools; 5 girls, 1 school; 7 girls, 1 school. 
The distribution of total enrolment in agriculture in schools is 
shown in the following table : 



Number of 


Number of 


Number of 


Number of 


pupils 


schools 


pupils 


schools 


7 


1 


19 


3 


10 


5 


20 


3 


11 


1 


21 


2 


12 


7 


22 


1 


13 


9 


23 


1 


14 


6 


24 


5 


15 


5 


25 


4 


. 16 


10 


27 


1 


17 


2 


28 


2 


18 


5 


32 


2 



The median enrolment for the 66 schools in places under 4,500 
population was 16; for the 9 schools in places above 4,500 popula- 
tion, 19; for the entire list of schools, 16. The intermediate schools 
had enrolments respectively of 10, 10, 12 and 13. 

Median enrolments for the past ten years are as follows : 



Year 


Number of 


Median 


Year 


Number of 


Median 


schools 


enrolment 


schools 


enrolment 


1911-12 


15 


24 


1916-17 


72 


18 


1912-13 


26 


20 


1917-18 


73 


18 


1913-14 


34 


16 


1918-19 


60 


18 


1914-15 


47 


17 


1919-20 


68 


16 


1915-16 


65 


18 


1920-21 


76 


16 



130 



The influence of the minimum requirement of 25 in the first two 
years is noteworthy, as well as the fact that it was not met. The 
decrease of requirement later from 15 to 12 is apparently without 
effect, since the pre-war years at 15 match the post-war years at 12. 
The slight rise during the war is probably due to the effect of pro- 
paganda of patriotism and desire of boys to contribute to the win- 
ning of the war through increased food production. 

Age and Grade 

Enrolment by grades and ages is reported from the replies made 
to questionnaire cards by 947 pupils in the 66 schools located in 
places of under 4,500 population. That is an incomplete record, 
though every school is represented by a majority of pupils enrolled 
in agriculture. Of the 66 schools, 21 have maintained courses for a 
period of three years or less, so that totals and percentages en- 
rolled by grades in agriculture are not comparable with those in 
academic courses representing the full four years of work. A com- 
parison is made, in a paragraph treating of size of classes, under the 
section on Teaching of Agriculture. By that means the effect of 
agricultural instruction upon enrolment of boys is shown, as it 
cannot be shown by the comparison of totals in existing schools. 

The figures reported are as follows. Percentages are probably 
more significant than totals. 



Grades 


Number of 
pupils 


Percent 
total 


Ages 


Number of 
pupils 


Percent 
total 


VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 


1} 

103 
363 
218 
144 
103 

1} 


0.74 

10.89 
38.41 
23.07 
15.23 
10.89 

0.75 


12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 


20/ 

78 
186 
266 
190 


2.44 

8.28 
19.75 


X 


28.24 


XI 


20.17 


XII 

Graduates . . . 
Specials 


126 
45 
18 

71 
1 
1 
1 




13.37 
4.78 
1.91 

1.06 



131 



One pupil in 9 is admitted to agricultural work in the first year 
who has not completed all the Regents requirements in the eighth 
grade. Approximately the same practice is pursued in the case of 
" eighth graders " in other studies of the high school program. The 
pupils reached by agriculture, then, are by age and grade among 
boys the same group as is reached by the academic curricula (see 
report on secondary schools). The sixth and seventh grade pupils 
are accounted for in the intermediate schools. Only one pupil in 
100 is a graduate or special student in agriculture, according to the 
reports of pupils themselves. In connection with the figures later 
submitted from the report of the Military Training Commission 
this state of affairs is significant, The present organization is 
serving practically only the regularly qualified and matriculated 
pupils of the high school, who constitute but a small fraction of 
adolescent boys in the rural communities. 

It has been stated frequently by academic opponents of voca- 
tional education that the agricultural course does not appeal to 
farm boys and farmers' sons. The figures below effectively refute 
that statement. In another connection also they are significant. 
Classroom instruction in terms largely out of the experience of 
pupils is notably futile. But classroom instruction in agriculture 
does not offend in that respect to any very significant degree, 
according to the reports of pupils. 

Occupation or Parents 

Occupation of parent reported Number Percent 

Agricultural 720 77.76 

Non-agricultural 206 22.24 

Not reported 21 

Seventy-eight boys in a hundred, then, enrolled in the agricul- 
tural course, are farmers' sons. Data showing the percent of 
farmers' sons in high schools are not available. There is, however, 
no reason to believe that the percentage of farmers' sons in high 
school is greater than that of farmers' daughters; the probabilities 
are the reverse. Nor is there any reason for believing that work 
in homemaking is selective against farmers' daughters. Hence a 
reasonable judgment of selective appeal in the case of agriculture 
may be based on comparison with the parental occupations of 

132 



girls in homemaking . Cards received from 880 girls in homemak- 
ing in rural high schools show that 51.93 percent are farmers' 
daughters. On that evidence the selective power of agriculture in 
drawing farmers' sons is very marked. 

Farm Experience 
One index of farm experience is found in the following: 

Number Percent 

Boys reared in open country 648 68.49 

Boys reared in country and village 65 6,87 

Boys reared in country, village, city 11 1.16 

Boys reared in country and city 24 2.54 

Boys reared in village and city 3 0.32 

Boys reared in village 166 17.55 

Boys reared in city 29 3.06 

Another in the following : 

Boys living on farm now 706 74.55 

Boys not living on farm now 241 25.45 

That only three boys of four are now living on a farm is significant, 
particularly with reference to the organization of supervised prac- 
tical work or projects, later on discussed. The relative difficulties 
of schools in that particular are indicated in the following table: 

Percent boys now Number of Percent boys not 

living on farms schools now living on farms 

100 

1-10 91 -f 

11-20 81 + 

21-30 71 + 

31-40 1 61 + 

41-50 4 51 + 

51-60 6 41 + 

61-70 14 31 + 

71-80 16 21 + 

81-90 12 11 + 

91 + 8 1 + 

100 5 

Evidently the problem of effective project organization is one 
which confronts the majority of teachers so far as the boy not living 
on a farm is concerned. In approximately two cases out of five it 
is a serious problem, since three boys or more in ten are not pro- 
vided with home facilities of the genuine farm environment. The 
present policy of the Division of Vocational and Extension Educa- 
tion in encouraging the substitution of employment, under the 
teacher's supervision, for the home project, is certainly appropriate 

133 



to the revealed status in the schools. To work out an organization 
of such supervised practice employment as shall make it as effective 
in the provision for responsible management as is the project, is a 
problem as yet unsolved. 

A third index of farm experience is shown in the following : 

Boys reporting that they have Percent of 947 boys 

Lived all their lives on a farm 51.00 

Lived on a farm 13 years or more 11.71 

Lived on a farm 10-12 years 6.01 

Lived on a farm 7-9 years 5.28 

Lived on a farm 4-6 years 8.65 

Lived on a farm 1-3 years 7.07 

Never lived on a farm 10.33 

The type of farm on which such experience was had is indicated 

below. The classification "general," of course, covers a multitude 

of differences but indicates diversity of experience. 

Percent 

General farm 517 60.63 

Dairy farm 277 32.55 

Fruit farm 32 3.76 

Truck farm 7 ' 

Poultry farm 3 

Sheep farm 1 j- 3.06 

Country estate 1 

Not given 13 J 

In New York the three types of farming in which 97 boys of 100 
who have had farm experience report their experience, are diversified 
types involving the use of machinery, the keeping and managing of 
horses and cattle and poultry, at least, and the growing of the com- 
mon forage crops. Evidently, then, there is a large basis of com- 
mon experience usable in the classroom work in agriculture. Such 
work can be made effective if the tendency of agricultural teachers 
observed to make use of concrete farm experiences of pupils be 
extended to the fullest. 

Nine boys of ten approximately, then, have had somewhat diver- 
sified experience of farm life. It is not certain, of course, that such 
experiences have been very fully reveaUng of the possibilities of 
farming occupations or farm life, but at least such boys are not 
entering into vocational work in total ignorance of the sort of work 
and the sort of life that must be done and lived on a farm. As 
between farming and farm life, and some oth^r occupation and the 
life implied therein, they are not wholly in the dark as regards 

134 



farming. There is in their experience the basis for intelligent 
guidance in regard to the agricultural vocations at least. 

Choice of Vocation 

Now the stated intention of boys with regard to prospective 
occupation is to be taken with a grain of salt. For many of them, 
in the absence of any adequate provision for range of vocational 
experience, and any teaching, even informational only, with respect 
to the opportunities for self-realization and for social service in 
various careers, the statement is a guess or a manifestation of a 
temporary set of mind. But what the boys in the agricultural 
course think they wish to become is of interest at least, and of some 
significance. At present we have no better criterion for determin- 
ing the appropriateness of the vocational course to the occupa- 
tional interests of pupils than the expressed purpose of the pupil. 

One hundred and eighty-five, or 19.54 percent, of the 947 boys 
and girls (14) reporting are undecided as to future occupation. 
Those who profess decision number 762, or 80.46 percent of the 
total. As to indicated pursuits, they classify as follows: 



Occupations related to agriculture 
specified as: 

Farming 497 

Poultry farming 24 

Dairy farming 6 

Fruit growing 1 

Cattle breeder 1 

Bee-keeper 4 

Florist 1 

Nurseryman 1 

Milk handler 2 

Veterinary 4 

Forestry 13 

Teaching agriculture 26 

580 
Note: Veterinary, forestry, milk 
handhng, and teaching of agriculture 
are included only because of the rela- 
tive appropriateness of the agricul- 
tural teaching, as compared with aca- 
demic work offered in high schools, 
to the vocational interest expressed. 
They are not regarded as true agricul- 
tural occupations. 



Occupations not closely related to 
agriculture specified as: 

Engineer 42 

Mechanic 35 

Electrician 17 

Carpenter 3 

Architect 3 

Truck driver 4 

Railway employee 7 

Draughtsman 1 

Tailor 1 

Undertaker 2 

Aviator 1 

Chemist 1 

Nurse 2 

Homemaker 1 

Y. M. C. A. Secretary 1 

Detective 2 

Business 37 

Lawyer 8 

Physician 3 

Banker 3 

Musician 2 

Author 1 

Army officer 1 

Naval officer 3 

Professional athlete 1 

182 



135 



Of boys making choice, 76.12 percent fall within the first group, 
23.88 percent in the second. The correlation between occupation 
of parents and prospective occupation of children is high, as found 
in many studies of the sort. 



Occupation of parent 

Agricultural 77.76 

Non-agricultural 22.24 



Occupation chosen by pupil 

Agricultural 76.12 

Non-agricultural 23.88 



By schools the differences in prospective vocation may be shown 

as follows: 

Number of Schools 



Percent 


Undecided 


Agricultural 


Other 


Pupils 


occupation 


occupation 





14 





9 


1-10 


8 





10 


11-20 


15 





17 


21-30 


14 


1 


16 


31-40 


7 


5 


8 


41-50 


6 


13 


6 


51-60 


1 


15 





61-70 


1 


6 





71-80 





19 





81-90 





6 





91 + 





1 





100 





1 





Median 


11-20 
21-70 


51-60 
71-100 


11-20 


Upper quartile. . . . 


21-50 


Lower quartile. . . . 


0-10 


21-50 


0-10 



By grades and percentages of totals in each the indicated choices 
of occupation are as follows: 





Agricultural 


Other 


Undecided 


Special and graduate . 
Grade XII 


100.00 
64.08 
65.97 
63.30 
57.85 
47.57 
57.14 



25.24 
17.36 
17.43 
20.93 
28.15 
28.57 



10.68 


Grade XI 


16.67 


Grade X 


19.27 


Grade IX 


21.22 


Grade VIII 


24.28 


Grades VI and VII . . 


14.29 



136 



In half the schools, then, one or two boys in 10 have not decided 
on an occupation, in half 2 to 6 boys in 10 have not decided on an 
occupation. By grades, ignoring the two extremes in which num- 
bers are very small, the progress of professed decision is steady, 
from 76 boys in 100 in grade VIII, to 89 boys in 100 in grade XII. 
The influence of teachers is probably largely accountable for the 
differences in schools, those of the course and of approaching gradua- 
tion for the grade differences. The increase in determination upon 
agricultural occupations is steady from grade VIII to grade XI. 
Thereafter the influence of the vocational diploma as a means to 
college entrance is shown, with the additional influence of the enrol- 
ment of a few twelfth graders in the newer departments in the lower 
classes in agriculture, the senior who has made his requirements 
choosing an elective in the first or second year of agriculture. 

Intention To Go to College 
Intention to go to college varies among schools as follows: 



Percent of pupils 


Number of 


intending to go to 


college 


schools 







1 


1-10 




2 


11-20 




5 


21-30 




9 


31-40 




7 


41-50 




14 


51-60 




15 


61-70 




5 


71-80 




6 


81-90 




2 



In half the schools, then, one to four boys in every ten expect to 
go to college, in half from four to eight. There is no evidence that 
in the minds of pupils the vocational course blocks the way to 
college entrance, in spite of the frequent allegation of academic 
opponents of the course. The influence of teachers and principals 
probably is largely accountable for the range of differences in 
schools. Of all boys 46.56 percent declare the intention of continu- 
ing their studies beyond the high school period. No standard is 
available for judging how far those expectations will be fulfilled. 
From rural high schools in the State, however, in 1918-19 and 

137 



1919-20 approximately 27 percent of the graduates entered some 
higher institution. It is not unsafe to predict that, including short 
course work at the State colleges, at least that proportion of gradu- 
ates in agriculture will go to college. 

Of all those who declare an intention to go on to college, 59.41 
percent have indicated choice of an agricultural course; 9.5 percent 
are undecided on a course, 12.7 percent choose an engineering 
course, 8.4 percent intend to take a business course, and the rest 
scatter among medical, veterinary, forestry, law, teaching, military 
and naval, arts and musical courses. By grades the selective 
influence of the four-year course in determination of intention to 
go to college is significant, and doubly marked in the choice of 
agricultural course. The fact that the State college of agriculture 
is the largest institution to which the vocational diploma admits 
undoubtedly has an effect, but the effect of the course is probably 
greater still, if we may judge by the fact that although three in ten 
eighth graders expect to go to college, only one in eight of the 
group so intending means to take an agricultural course. Of 
seniors 7 in 10 expect to go to college, and of those with such 
expectations nearly 7 in 10 expect to pursue an agricultural course. 

Percent planning Percent of those planning 

Grade to go to college an agricultural course 

XII 69.90 68.05 

XI 56.25 66.67 

X 42.66 65.59 

IX 41.33 55.00 

VIII 35.92 13.59 

Entry upon the high school course in agriculture results promptly 
in a relatively high choice in agriculture for college work. 

Of all farmers' sons, 309, or 42.92 percent, are going to college. 
Farmers' sons make up but 53.17 percent of the prospective college 
group, though they constitute 77.76 percent of all pupils in the 
course. Non-farmers' sons are planning on college work to the 
extent of 64.08 percent. They make of the college group 46.83 
percent, though of the total group, but 22.24 percent. Thus half 
again as many boys from non-agricultural parentage plan on college 
as do farmers' sons. 

138 



However, 30.83 percent of farmers' sons declare intention to go to 
the agricultural college, as against 19.32 percent of sons of other 
than farmers. Of those planning to take a college course in agri- 
culture, 84.73 percent are farmers' sons, 15.27 percent sons of 
others. Planning to take another college course are 12.08 percent 
of farmers' sons, 44.66 percent of sons of others. Of the whole 
group professing expectation of college study in other than agricul- 
tural courses, farmers' sons make 48.60 percent, sons of others 
51.40 percent. 

It thus is evident that the farmer's son in the high school agricul- 
tural course, if less likely than his village neighbor's son to plan on 
a college course, is far more likely to choose an agricultural college 
course than any other course, and more than half again as likely to 
choose that course as his village seat-mate. His seat-mate, if half 
again as likely to plan on college, is more than three times as likely 
to choose a non-agricultural college course as the farmer's son, but 
is, nevertheless, more likely to take the agricultural college course 
than another. 

In the case of occupations professedly chosen the selective effect 
of the course in terms of parental occupation is marked. Cutting 
out of the list of agricultural occupations forestry, veterinary, and 
milk plant employment, for all of which the value of the vocational 
course is undoubtedly higher than that of any other high school 
course at present offered, there are 561 boys who intend to pursue 
agriculture, ignoring those who profess no choice. Of these 480 
are farmers' sons, 85.56 percent; 14.44 percent non-farmers' sons. 
The appeal of the course, then, in terms of occupational interest, is 
higher than in terms of parental occupation, the corresponding 
figures being 77.76 percent and 22.24 percent. But almost half of 
all non-farmers' sons, 48.54 percent, are prospective farmers or 
teachers of agriculture. 

There are several significant facts in the foregoing. Boys who 
think they know that they wish to pursue farming occupations take 
the agricultural course in proportionately large numbers. Boys 
who think they know that they do not wish to be farmers not only 
enter the course, but persist through it. In either case anticipation 
of college appears to make no difference. Considering the occupa- 

139 



tions of the agricultural group, the choice of the agricultural course 
is easily understood, with other occupations in view less. Barring 
business, the nature of which is usually unspecified, the more fre- 
quently chosen occupations are the engineering and mechanic 
trades. By substituting agriculture for language the boy gains an 
opportunity to work with tools and machines and use instruments, 
such as the plane-table and level, to draw to scale, make topo- 
graphic maps, and the like. It is hardly to be wondered that a boy 
looking forward to one of those occupations should choose the 
opportunity to approach his career in some clearly appropriate way, 
rather than to give his time to Latin or French, merely because 
such is a college entrance requirement. 

The agricultural course provides, usually, the only immediate 
means to contact with economic problems and to methods of 
accounting and advertising. That the boy who plans a business 
career should choose the course rather than foreign languages is 
readily understandable. Further, in many of the schools the only 
opportunity to work with a man teacher is in the agricultural 
course. The presence of boys who have no intention of farming in 
the course is, then, fairly accounted for. They are simply taking 
the best chance the school offers to get what appears to them as 
really useful education. 

The need for provision of useful and appropriate work for such a 
group is obvious. The provision of such is among the recommenda- 
tions of the surveyor. 

Intention to Complete Course 
Pupils were asked to state whether or not they intended to com- 
plete the four years of work in agriculture, and if not, why they 
proposed to quit. All but one replied to the question: 648, or 
68.50 percent, intended to stick; 253, or 26.74 percent expected to 
quit; 35, or 4.76 percent, were undecided in the matter. 

The reasons given for quitting are interesting. Sixty-three quit 
because of graduation before the opportunity to complete the 
course was given; that is, the work was too new in the school to 
enable them to take all four years. Fifty, or nearly the same pro- 
portion, proposed to quit because they were not going to be farmers; 

140 



69 were leaving school to go to work; 12 did not like the work or did 
not like the teacher; 19 quit because of pressure of academic 
requirements; 4 were moving away from the community; 1 left on 
account of his health; and 1 for lack of funds to stay. 

Those who quit because they chose to, then, were not more than 
one in ten of the enrolment. No comparison is possible with other 
high school subjects, but agriculture would probably rank high 
among those offered. 

Reasons for Choice of Course 

Reasons for entering the course given by the boys are variously 
naive, interesting, or significant: 900 boys made answer, with the 
following frequencies : 

Because I intend to be a farmer 151 

Because I am interested in farming 145 

Because I want to learn farming 156 

Because I like agriculture 144 

To prepare for agricultural college 58 

Because what I learn will help on farm now 50 

Because I can use what I learn some time 49 

Because it is more practical than other courses 36 

Because I have always Uved on a farm 32 

Because I want to learn poultry keeping 25 

Because my parents advised me to take it 22 

Because I want to know dairying 10 

Because I want help in fruit growing 3 

Because there is money in farming 26 

Because it helps me to manage my farm work 8 

Because it will make me better fitted for farming 10 

Because I like shop work 9 

Because I like the project work 7 

Because I hke the country 11 

Because it is the most advantageous course 11 

Because I need some farm experience 22 

To find out if I want to be a farmer 15 

Because I am crippled and I can only teach 1 

Because it is required (intermediate schools) 23 

The only high school course I could take (Grade VIII) 5 

Because I wanted to learn a trade 4 

To get an education 6 

To fill up spare time 7 

To get the counts toward my diploma 64 

Prefer it to foreign language 99 

Type of Pupil 

The teachers' opinion concerning the type of boy, according to 
scholastic ability, drawn in to the agricultural course, indicates that 

141 



teachers, on the whole, think well of the boys who come to them, 
if it be by no means conclusive evidence. The judgments of prin- 
cipals and departmental teachers are recorded separately, for the 
reason that, presumably, the principal having acquaintance with 
all the boys of the school and their records should give a better 
judgment. The principals are somewhat more conservative than 
the other teachers. But, on the basis of their judgment even, there 
is no reason to beUeve that boys in agriculture are other than the 

normal high school group in scholastic capacity. 

Departmental 
Principals teachers 

Normal high school lot 10 3 

More bright boys than dull boys 9 30 

More dull boys than bright boys 4 7 

That the tendency to ''dump" the scholastic "dubs" into a new 
course, particularly of the vocational type, is strong, is common 
opinion. No evidence is found here for the existence of the practice 
on the part of principals. Examination by standard test would be 
of interest. 

The lack of record of graduates of the vocational course and of 
matriculants who have left the course is marked in the schools, as 
in the State office. Thirty-one schools could give no data with 
regard to graduates, seven with regard to departed matriculants. 
The rest were able to give only incomplete data in every case. 

Records of Matriculants 

Record of 332 graduates from 27 schools is reported as follows: 

Percent 
Number reported 

In agriculture 150 45.2 

In college 83 25.0 

In other vocations 99 29.8 

Record of 578 former students non-graduate from 48 schools is as 

follows : 

Percent 

Number reported 

In agriculture 241 41.8 

In college 33 5.7 

In other high school courses 143 24.7 

In other vocations 161 27.8 

142 



Mr. H. S. Gabriel, in a study of such boys for four communities 
in 1919-20, reported 40 percent farming; 59 percent in farming and 
related pursuits. Both his report and that above include periods 
in which the demand for unskilled labor in industry at high pay was 
draining the farms. Nevertheless, the result appears disappoint- 
ingly low. It is only by comparison with the total of high school 
graduates that the effect of the agricultural course in actual place- 
ment becomes evident. 

The percentage of boys in the senior classes of all rural high 
schools is 36.5. Of all graduates of the years 1918-19 and 1919-20, 
3.503 percent went into agricultural occupations. Assuming that 
such were boys almost exclusively, it is evident that about one boy 
in ten graduating from the high school goes into farming at gradua- 
tion. The increased proportion from agricultural courses is thus 
from 300 percent to 600 percent. It is not to be assumed, however, 
that the boy who seeks other employment of an unskilled nature 
for wages is lost to agriculture. The accumulation of a small 
capital is necessary to a start as a renter, and such may be made 
through employment other than as a farm worker. No data are 
available to indicate how far such a prognosis is reliable. 

While the agricultural course remains the only opportunity in 
the high school for obtaining skill in the use of tools, judgment of 
material values, knowledge of instruments and practical measure- 
ments, understanding of powers and machines, of economic law and 
business method, however restricted such may be with reference to 
a vocation outside of agriculture, it is to be expected that boys will 
pursue that course who afterward enter into other lines of work. 
At the same time the indications are that the majority of the 25 
percent of graduates of the agricultural course reported in college 
are in agricultural colleges, the actual return to agriculture by 
graduates is probably nearer to 65 percent than 40. Such is not 
far from the percentage of expectancy indicated in returns from 
pupils. Until guidance is provided and a greater range of voca- 
tional preparation, it is not likely that higher figures will be reached. 



143 



CHAPTER VII 
EQUIPMENT 

DETAILED lists of equipment possessed by schools are on 
file with the division at Albany. No statistical data were 
assembled, however, from such lists. They seemed to bear 
out the statement of the three supervising officers that equipment 
is inspected and approved rather according to the particular 
instruction being offered and to the size of classes than with respect 
to the elaborate list provided in the State requirements. Com- 
paratively few schools can now meet item for item that list of require- 
ments, but all have been approved for present purposes of instruc- 
tion. The State list is not compiled from any very careful study of 
the requirements of farmers or of teachers. In the case of shop 
tools, the list is approved by a highly qualified shop expert. It is 
unlikely that any one farmer would possess or need to possess so 
full an equipment, but the list is meant to cover a wide range of 
shop operations such as might be found in total among the farms 
of a region. Until a study has been made of existing and prospec- 
tive needs in construction and repair work on farms, it is not just 
to say that the requirement is too elaborate. In regard to labora- 
tory equipment a review of requirements since the foundation of 
schools indicates a marked tendency to do away with what is 
costly and unnecessary to the needs of teachers, and at the same 
time to insist that teachers be not compelled to make or have their 
boys make laboratory equipment that is of essential utility in 
teaching, or to get along with makeshifts, such as tin cans, broken 
bottles, and wooden balances, for necessary apparatus. 

The report on equipment is based on the observation of the 
twenty-six schools in which methods of teaching were studied. 
Reports on equipment were incidental to observation of teaching, 
and in consequence neither elaborate nor complete. 

144 



With respect to tools and implements, observers were asked to 
report on the type used — whether of the sort actually used in the 
vocation or not. In twenty schools they were reported as satisfac- 
tory in that respect, in six they were reported as not of the sort now 
being used by farmers. 

The condition of the tools and implements was reported for 
twelve schools as good, for eight as fair, and for six as poor. 

As to whether tools and implements were adequate to the needs 
of the class in the judgment of the observer, the report is as follows: 

yes, 18; no, 8. 

Approximately 80 percent of the schools, so far as the 26 observed 
are representative of the general condition, are reasonably well 
equipped with tools and implements for purposes of instruction — 
it being borne in mind that such tools and implements are supple- 
mentary to the accessible resources of the community. 

With respect to possession of equipment for the several subjects 
of the course the reports are not very enlightening. 

Poultry 

No equipment at all 8 

Incubator and brooder 15 

Complete equipment 3 

The deficiency here was not judged accurately. With the pro- 
ject work well organized and a reasonable resourcefulness in the use 
of community plants, it is probably not serious. 

Garden and Crop Equipment 

None at all 9 

Hoes and rakes 6 

Additional implements 10 

The same comment as was made on poultry is applicable here. 

Soils Equipment 

None at all 7 

Complete 4 

Variously incomplete 15 

The deficiency here appears more noteworthy. Though elabor- 
ate equipment for soils work is unnecessary, there is little oppor- 
lo 145 



tunity for dependence on community resources. The State list is a 
fair guide to important requirements. 

Fruit Growing 

In fruit work, practicums involving a group play an important 

part and it is seldom that sufficient apparatus for group work is 

conveniently accessible. The farms will furnish trees to be pruned 

or sprayed by a dozen boys, but not the tools for a dozen to work 

with. 

No equipment 4 

Insufficient equipment 2 

Complete 2 

Special equipment mentioned by frequencies : 

Pruning shears 7 

Pruning hook 2 

Pruning saws 6 

Grafting chisels 8 

Spraying outfit 3 

Dairy and Animal Husbandry 

None 3 

Babcock tester and glassware 16 

Full list 7 

Agricultural Engineering 

None 9 

Level with attachments 8 

Plane table 9 

It is to be noted that not all the schools observed were offering 
the four years of work, so that approval of present equipment is 
understandable. Yet it appears that New York schools are by no 
means fully equipped with the material apparatus of agricultural 
instruction. In respect to books and reading materials, only one 
school was reported as absolutely deficient in library facilities. 
That school had but a few books and all of them borrowed. The 
rest ranged from excellent to fair in library facilities. 

The value of the school plot as a means to vocational teaching is 
much in dispute. It is fairly certain, at least, that it is not essential. 
Of the 26 schools, 11 had no plots, 13 had ''small" plots, and two 
had three and four acres respectively. 

146 



Rooms 

Two schools did all the work in one room; twenty-two combined 
classroom and laboratory in one room and had a separate shop ; one 
school had three separate rooms, — classroom, laboratory, and shop, 
— and one had a separate classroom with laboratory and shop com- 
bined. With the exception of the first two the State requirements 
as to number of rooms appear to be met. The combination of 
laboratory and classroom, with separate shop, which prevails, is 
probably the most desirable division of rooms. 

The location of rooms is shown as follows : 



Shop in the basement 19 

Shop on first floor 1 

Shop on second floor 1 

Shop in separate building 5 

Classroom-laboratory in basement 8 

Classroom-laboratory first floor 1 

Classroom-laboratory on second floor 7 

Classroom-laboratory on other floors 6 

Classroom on first floor 1 

Classroom on other floors 3 

All rooms in school building 21 

All rooms in separate building 3 

Division between buildings 2 



The typical school, then, has its classroom-laboratory in the main 
building, with a shop in the basement. Less than one school in 
three relegates all vocational teaching in agriculture to the base- 
ment. 

Condition of rooms was reported as follows: 

Excellent 5 

Neat and orderly 11 

Untidy 5 

Untidy and disorderly 5 

Lighting of agricultural rooms was reported as unsatisfactory 
in seven cases, referring to the basement shop. In two cases arti- 
ficial light had to be used in order to enable pupils to work in the 
shop. Heating in four cases was supplied by stoves, in one by an 
open-flame gas heater. In twenty-one cases the windows supplied 
ventilation. 

147 



Merits and Deficiencies 

Special deficiencies in rooms and equipment are reported as 
follows : 

Rough walls 3 No tables or desks .... 1 Scanty illustrative ma- 
Loose plaster 3 No sink 8 terial 11 

Dark and dingy 2 No running water .... 2 No blackboard 1 

Low ceiling 2 No storage room for Scanty shop equip- 
No work benches in lumber, etc 17 ment 11 

shop 2 

and the deficiencies in subject equipment already indicated. In 
summary of equipment observers judged equipment in general to 
be: 

Of appropriate type 22 

Inappropriate 4 

Sufficient in amount 12 

Insufficient in amount 14 

It is worthy of note that in the vocational teaching relative 
emphasis is high upon the securing of a well-prepared teacher — the 
first requirement to success. The expense, however, to the com- 
munity is small. But communities are not on that account expend- 
ing funds in travel and equipment to make the work of that teacher 
most effective. More than half the schools, according to the 
random selection employed, are scantily equipped. The need 
under such conditions for enabling the teacher to work frequently 
with the boys at home is increased rather than lessened. In 
respect, however, to rooms and equipment, where the latter at 
least is less a factor than in homemaking, the ''schools of agricul- 
ture" are better supported than the ''schools of homemaking," and 
probably as well supported as the science teaching departments of 
the high school. If, on a basis of standard adequacy, the laboratory 
equipment of the rural high schools be given a rating of 13 points in 
a possible 20, agricultural equipment has not contributed to raise 
the rating. 



148 



CHAPTER VIII 
SUPERVISED PRACTICE 

THE supervised practice work carried on by pupils on their 
home farms and as responsible owners or managing partners 
in specific enterprises or jobs goes, for the most part, under 
the name, "home project." In lieu of a home project boys who do 
not Hve on farms or who for other reasons may be unable to secure 
ownership or managerial control of crops or live stock may be per- 
mitted to substitute employment on an approved farm under super- 
vision of the teacher and agreement with the employing farmer. 
Observation of the conduct of such work was not undertaken by 
the surveyor, in spite of its great importance, because of the great 
expense in time and money necessary to an adequate study. But 
the summary records of the Albany office, which are carefully kept, 
were examined with particular reference to the appropriateness of 
the project undertakings for vocational instruction. Under the 
original requirements it was necessary only that a boy pursue an 
undertaking related to the subject study of the year for a period of 
six months or more, and to complete the work and the records of 
the project to the satisfaction of the teacher and the supervising 
officers. The records show two developments consistent with the 
present policy: (1) A steady increase in the size of the undertakings, 
so that many of them are now "man size" undertakings, involving 
the use of tools, implements, and areas sufficient to mark them as 
genuine farm enterprises and not playthings. (2) An increase in 
the number of "continuation projects" or the carrying on of a 
first undertaking through two or more years in conjunction with the 
new project of the following year. Thus a good many boys have 
two or three enterprises going at the same time and in working 
relation to one another, as in growing feed for stock at the same 
time that the stock is the appropriate project for the year. In that 
way a valuable experience of the coordination of effort and the dis- 

149 



tribution of capital and labor is given on a small scale. It furnishes 
an excellent basis for farm management study, and represents a 
movement to bring all pupils in the fourth year of their work into a 
genuine farm management situation in so far as it is possible to do 
so. That the ideal has not been realized does not detract from the 
merits of the development. 

Recorded "Projects" 
In May, 1920-21, the recorded projects of pupils enrolled in 61 
schools of rural districts distribute as follows: 

No. Percent 

Poultry projects 390 28.78 

Crop projects 680 50.18 

Fruit projects 48 3.54 

Animal husbandry and dairjang 183 13.51 

Agricultural engineering projects 4 0.29 

Farm management projects 50 3.69 

1,355 
In detail they classify as follows : 

Hens and chickens 387 28.56 

Ducks 2 

Turkeys 1 

Gardens 117 8.63 

Truck crops 55 4.06 

Potatoes 346 25.54 

Beans 19 

Corn 122 9.00 

Grain 19 

Unspecified crops 2 

Apples 17 

Peaches 2 

Cherries 1 

Small fruits 14 

Unspecified fruits 14 

Swine 72 5.31 

Sheep 4 

Rabbits 1 

Cows 51 3.76 

Heifers 6 

Calves 33 2.43 

Unspecified animals 8 

Unspecified engineering 4 

Managing a farm 6 

Dairy farm project 16 

General farm project 28 

Records of projects carried out of the year in which instruction 

150 



in the pertinent subject is given do not show the full number of 
schools carrying continuation projects, since with two or three 
subjects on the program of the year a boy in second or third year 
may be continuing a project begun earlier. Nevertheless, summary 
is presented as an indication that continuation projects are definitely 
in operation, and not in the sole status of recommended policy. 
Those evident from the absence in the year's program of the subject 
study by the class is as follows : 

Continuation Number Continuation Number 

project of schools project of schools 

Poultry 14 Swine 14 

Potatoes 10 Rabbit 1 

Corn 8 Sheep 1 

Truck crops 1 Dairy 10 

Fruit 8 



The number of schools showing continuation project work is 38, 
or 62.29 percent; the number of such projects 211, or 15.57 percent, 
of the projects recorded for the 61 schools. 

By schools, of the 61 reporting, the frequency of offering the 

various projects is as follows: 

Number of Percent of 

Project schools schools 

Hens and chickens 52 85.25 

Ducks 2 3.28 

Turkeys 1 1 .64 

Gardens 33 54.09 

Truck crops 24 39.34 

Potatoes 47 77.05 

Com 35 57.38 

Grain 9 14.75 

Unspecified crops 2 3.28 

Apples 10 16.39 

Peaches 2 3.28 

Cherries 1 1.64 

Small fruits 9 14.75 

Unspecified fruits 7 11.48 

Swine 28 45.90 

Sheep 3 4.92 

Rabbits 1 1.64 

Cows 27 44.26 

Heifers 5 8.19 

Calves 10 16.39 

Unspecified animals 6 9.84 

Engineering projects 3 4.92 

Managing a farm 5 8.19 

Dairy farm project 9 14.75 

General farm project 14 22.95 



Several indications of significance are to be found in the preceding 
summary of projects. The first goes to reinforce the statement 
already made that the major part of instruction and training is in 
first-year subjects. Eight out of ten projects, including, of course, 
continuation projects, is related to the instruction in poultry and 
crop growing. Almost 3 in 10 of all projects are in poultry raising, 
and more than half of all projects are in crop growing, including 
garden crops. Three-fourths at least of all crop projects are in cash 
crops, and one-half of crops and one-fourth of all projects are in 
potatoes. 

Now the prevalence of such projects is easily explained, and the 
explanation accounts in part for the sequence of subjects in the 
course used. Poultry, garden, and cash crop projects require but a 
relatively small outlay in capital, a relatively small area of land, 
interfere to a very small degree in the management scheme of the 
home farm under the father's direction, and give relatively prompt 
and high returns for labor expended. In the same way the domin- 
ance of swine projects in the animal husbandry list is accounted for. 
Now such are very useful characteristics in a project. They enable 
a boy to get an early start in farm work as owner or manager, 
enable him promptly to measure the progress of his work, and fur- 
ther enable him to accumulate the capital necessary to projects of 
later years in the course. Poultry projects in addition can be read- 
ily and appropriately started in the fall of the year, so that the boy 
has continual and genuine problems of his own to give motive to the 
instruction of the year. A good deal of construction and repair 
work also goes with the starting of a poultry project, so that it fits in 
admirably with the plan of course. 

But the fact remains, that by and large poultry keeping is a minor 
rather than a major enterprise on New York farms. It is special- 
ized to a degree that makes it far from typical of enterprises in 
animal husbandry, though the same principles of selection, nurture, 
protection, and disposal are involved as with other animal enter- 
prises. But a boy profits relatively little from his experience with 
poultry when he comes to the management of horses, cattle, sheep, 
or swine. It is an enterprise conducted without recourse to the 
major implements, machines, and powers of the farm. In the 

152 



latter respect gardening is comparable with it. Yet more boys re- 
ceive instruction in poultry and gardening than in any other sub- 
jects of the course, and many boys leave school with no other agri- 
cultural instruction than is represented by them. That is, practical 
experience in the kind of farming which is likely to benefit them 
least is given the greatest number of boys. 

That half the projects undertaken are in crop growing is en- 
couraging, and the second largest group receives such practical 
training. Now the truck crops and potatoes are, perhaps, repre- 
sentative of a larger range of farm practices and problems than the 
corn or grain. They have the advantage of the corn in that they 
ordinarily call for cash marketing and protection from diseases and 
insects involving practices of wide usability. They have the ad- 
vantage of grain that they are intertilled crops involving care of the 
soil and use of implements typical of a range of crops, as well as in 
the matter of giving experience in disease and insect control to a 
larger degree than grain. Yet they do not correlate closely with 
projects in animal management, and are not as dominantly major 
farm enterprises in New York as is corn or even the other grains. 
Many a boy learns to grow potatoes who will never find it profitable 
to grow them on the home farm in larger amounts than are neces- 
sary to the home supply. Little fault can be found with the pro- 
jects of the first tw^o years as to appropriateness, if every boy were 
to remain in school the full four years. But since two boys out of 
three leave by the end of the second year, those projects become 
relatively inappropriate for the majority. 

In any community it would seem that the boy should be as 
promptly as possible brought into contact with the most significant 
enterprises of the region. It is not enough that he shall be insured 
contact if he will remain for the four years. It must be insured that 
he will have educative contact with those major interests anyway, 
and will get additional experience in minor and contributory enter- 
prises if he stays long enough. Thus, in a fruit region he should 
come into immediate contact with the problems of fruit growing, in 
a truck region with the problems of truck raising, in a dairy region 
with problems of milk production. 

Organizati©n of instruction about a project sequence founded on 

153 



relative ease of inauguration or expediency in supervisory operation 
will certainly result in meaningful teaching if pupils can be held to 
the full course. But boys often leave the course or do not enter it at 
all because it does not bring them at once to the central interest of 
their prospective pursuit. A good project organization must be 
organized in terms of the dominance of regional enterprises, so that 
the most significant shall be most certainly studied by the largest 
number of pupils. The project must become a means to this experi- 
ence in so far as it is usable, and abandoned where it is not usable. 
To require a boy to study poultry in his first year, because it is 
possible for him to start immediate project work in it is not sound, 
except poultry be more significant presently or prospectively to 
him than another enterprise. To say to a boy who wishes to become 
a dairy farmer, ''You cannot study dairy farming till the third 
year," is unsound. What he is going to school for may well be 
instruction in dairying. The other studies of the course become 
significant to him only as they prove to be clearly usable in the 
conduct of a good dairy farm. If he cannot, for lack of capital, 
start with the responsible enterprise of herd ownership or manage- 
ment, at least he can do the next best thing, take up supervised 
practical work on a dairy farm in lieu of the project until such 
time as he has capital to "go it on his own" on a small scale at 
least. The same thing may be said of fruit growing. 

With crops, no such difficulty obtains. If a particular annual 
crop be a major enterprise in the region, then it can be well under- 
taken in the first year. Now in most sections of the State, dairy 
and crop enterprises determine the type of farming. The majority 
who leave before graduation should, in a summary of the State, be 
represented in crop and dairy instruction, the minority who go on 
to completion in the minor projects of poultry, swine, gardening, 
sheep, etc. 

It may be noted that the swine project is to a considerable ex- 
tent typical of animal husbandry, and that it has most of the merits 
of the poultry project in other respects. It correlates well, also, with 
crop growing. Much the same justification for the brood sow project 
in animal husbandry may be advanced as for the potato project in 
crop growing, and the same general objections are vahd against it. 

154 



The critical may note the presence of a rabbit project. Inquiry 
was made into the matter. It is reported a genuine vocational 
project in that it is, on a large scale, already contributory in consid- 
erable measure to the family income, and is the prospective life 
work of the boy engaged. On that ground it appears well justified. 
There is no very closely correlated instruction, but the boy is being 
helped to the utmost as an individual. Since he will conduct a 
farm the management of which centers about rabbit raising, not 
all the value of class instruction will be lost to him, though he 
receive much that he does not need in certain subjects. 

Project Supervision 

Visits by Teachers. — The extent to which teachers and prin- 
cipals are making use of the summer season and other than school 
hours in visiting projects, rural schools, and farms for purposes 
other than project supervision is shown by the reports of 32 depart- 
mental teachers and 23 principals of the 66 engaged in the rural 
high and intermediate schools for 1920-21. The items reported 
upon are visits to projects of boys in vocational agriculture, visits to 
junior projects of pupils of the seventh and eighth grades, visits to 
rural schools of elementary grade, and visits to farms and farmers. 

The range in total of such visits is for 55 teachers reporting on all 
items from 23 to 493, with a median at 108. For principals the 
range is from 29 to 339, with a median at 78; for departmental 
teachers, 23 to 493, with a median at 138. The lower and upper 
quartiles are as follows: All teachers, 23-72, and 174-493; principals 
29-53, and 145-369; departmental teachers 23-80, and 210-493. 

With respect to visits to farms and farmers the distribution is as 
follows: All teachers range from no visits (in two cases) to 96, me- 
dian 20, lower quartile 0-11, upper quartile 34-96; principals range 
(1 case) to 75, median 20, lower quartile 0-10, upper quartile 35 
to 75; departmental teachers range (1 case) to 96, median 20, 
lower quartile 0-10, upper quartile 34-96. 

In the case of visits to elementary rural schools the distribution 
of visits is as follows: All teachers range (16 cases) to 38, median 5, 
lower quartile 0, upper quartile 10-38. 

Visits to junior projects: All teachers range (14 cases) to 262, 

155 



median 14, lower quartile 0, upper quartile 54-262 ; principals range 
(10 cases) to 262, median 4, lower quartile 0, upper quartile 
35-262; departmental teachers range (4 cases) to 237, median 
25.5, upper quartile 67-237. 

The extent to which supervision of "home project" work of voca- 
tional students is carried on is indicated by the following summary 
from the completed reports of 1919-20. Thirty-four departmental 
teachers and nineteen principals, three of them of intermediate 
schools, are included in the list. The data have been reduced to 
average number of visits per boy at project work during the twelve 

months. 

Departmental 
Average visits teachers 

per boy 1919-1920 Principals 

3.6-4.0 3 1 

4.1-4.5 2 

4.6-5.0 3 6 

5.1- 5.5 1 

5.6-6.0 5 2 

6.1-6.5 3 1 

6.6-7.0 3 1 

7.1- 7.5 4 1 

7.6-8.0 4 2 

8.1-8.5 2 

9.1-9.5 1 

9.6-10.0 2 

10.1-10.5 1 

11.6-12.0 2 

12.6-13.0 1 

13.1-13.5 1 

16.1-16.5 1 

34 19 

Average visits 
per boy 

Median all teachers 6.8 

Median departmental teachers 7.0 

Median principals 5.0 

Lower quartile all teachers 3.7-5.0 

Lower quartile departmental teachers 3.8-5.8 

Lower quartile principals 3.7-4.8 

Upper quartile all teachers 7.8-16.3 

Upper quartile departmental teachers 8.2-16.3 

Upper quartile principals 6.2-12.6 

The distribution in time and the duration of visits are quite as 
important factors as frequency of visits. No record of such factors 
is to be had. But it is hardly conceivable that such frequencies as 

is6 



are reported for the lower quartiles can be effective in developing 
community teaching resources, reaching and guiding prospective or 
possible pupils, or in use of the project as a teaching means for 
vocational students. In the first place there are not enough visits 
to make the distribution of them through the season or teaching 
year a factor of any moment; in the second, no matter how long the 
teacher may spend on the several visits made, there are not enough 
of them for the ''follow-up" of any process, enterprise, or interest; in 
the third place barely one-fourth of the teachers have attained an 
approximation to that frequency of personal instruction which is 
minimal to successful use of the project as a teaching means in 
vocational agriculture. Inasmuch as intimate acquaintance with 
community resources, intimate contact with boys to whom voca- 
tional teaching may offer an opportunity, and, above all, intimate 
follow-up and direction of the boy's work on his project, are central 
in the program of vocational education in agriculture it is evident 
that weakness exists. 

The difference between departmental teachers and agricultural 
principals in the extent of their supervisory and visiting work is 
clear, and reasonably to be expected in view of the heavier load of 
the principal and the confining nature of his duties during the 
academic year. But it is noteworthy that some of the principals 
are among the most active of all teachers in spite of the handicap. 
It is not impossible for an energetic principal, who knows how, to do 
a great deal of supervising and community visiting. 

The low medians are undoubtedly in part attributable to the 
lack of adequate provision for expenses of transportation. Unfor- 
tunately, figures are not available to show the relationship between 
a liberal allowance and a liberal extra-school activity. But that 
the normal allowance of fifty dollars is adequate there is little room 
to believe. 

A few men are plainly "lying down on the job," and should be 
dismissed from the service. Others either insufficiently appreciate 
the importance of the work or do not know how to undertake it in 
spite of the wealth of supervisory advice and divisional publication 
with reference to the matter. It seems not unreasonable to con- 
clude that in at least one-fourth of the cases recorded " directed farm 

157 



practice" is still a farce from any educative standpoint. If, how- 
ever, we consider that it is but a few years from the time when the 
project was regarded even by State officers as independent practice 
accessory to instruction, and by teachers as merely an incubus 
requirement on the part of the State for which they were responsible 
only as recorders and reporters of initiation and completion, it is 
encouraging that one-half of the teachers appear to be moving 
toward a creditable standard. 

That rapid progress in so essential a matter is probable is not 
likely under a centralized scheme of supervision. The supervisor 
must be closer to his teachers and their problems. An organiza- 
tion on the basis of an administrative unit intermediate between 
the State and the local high school community is recommended to 
the careful consideration of the leaders in education. 



Report on Completed Projects, 1919-20 



Poultry Projects 

No. of projects 251 

Av. No. fowls 38 

Av. No. chicks 67 

Av. net income $106.20 

Potato Projects 

No. of projects 121 

Av. area (acres) 1 

Av. net income $26.70 

Small Grain Projects 

No. of projects 10 

Av. area (acres) 7.2 

Av. net income $77.10 

Cabbage Projects 

No. of projects 12 

Av. area (acres) .833 

Av. net income $34.17 

Small Fruit Projects 

No. of projects 17 

Av. area (acres) .765 

Av.net income $117.47 

Calf Projects 

No. of projects 13 

Av. No. of calves 1.3 

Av. net income $63.62 

Garden and Truck Projects 

No. of projects 87 

Av. area (acres) .425 

Av. net income $52.48 



Corn Projects 

No. of projects 96 

Av. area (acres) 1.375 

Av. net income $50.36 

Bean Projects 

No. of projects 9 

Av. area (acres) 1.11 

Av. net income $45.56 

Orchard Projects 

No. of projects 22 

Av. area (acres) 1.818 

Av. net income $106.23 

Dairy Cow Projects 

No. of projects 54 

Av. No. of cows 9.2 

Av. net income $624.58 

Swine Projects 

No. of projects 46 

Av. No. pigs 7.52 

Av. net income $27.72 

Sheep Projects 

No. of projects 7 

Av. No. sheep 21.7 

Av. net loss $40.43 

Belgian Hare Projects 

No. of projects 1 

No. of does 12 

Net income $14 00 

Bee Projects 

No. of projects 1 

No. of hives 21 

Net income $152.00 



158 



The foregoing report is based on the completed returns in hand 
of projects, about 60 percent of the total, for the year 1919-20. It 
is the opinion of the supervisory officers that the size of projects in 
1920-21 will show a considerable increase. Averages are not wholly 
satisfactory, but figures for range and distribution could be worked 
out only through weeks of additional study, and averages are pre- 
sented for what they are worth. Clearly not all the projects are of 
the "man size" to give the best vocational experience, but at least 
they are much more than playthings, and involve responsible pro- 
ductive effort and a return approximating that of the good farmer 
for investment and labor. The net income includes profit and wages 
for the boy's own labor and approximates closely the labor income. 



159 



CHAPTER IX 
CONTENT OF THE COURSE 

Developments 

TWO rather significant changes are to be noted in the progress 
of the course of study in agriculture since the formulation of 
the State plan in 1910. Both are evidences of the alertness 
of the division to seek closer adaptations to the needs of communi- 
ties served by the school, on the one hand, and to improved teaching, 
on the other. Both are evidences, also, of increasing clarity in con- 
ception of the aim of the work. 

The first is the substitution of subject studies clearly related to 
specific types of farm enterprises for studies of a more general and 
remote nature. The original plan was based on a wide, if somewhat 
smattering, informational study of the subject of agriculture, called 
general or elementary agriculture, as a ''background" for further 
study. The general and text information of the first year was 
followed by more intensive study of major scientific aspects of all 
agriculture in soils, animal husbandry, mechanics, etc., farm man- 
agement being not yet elevated to the status of a subject even in 
the agricultural colleges. Only in the last year of the course was 
any adaptation to community needs or the particular interests of a 
local group of pupils evident. It then became possible to choose 
one or two of several specific groups of subjects, such as dairy- 
ing, fruit-growing, vegetable gardening, etc., to meet the local 
conditions. The theory then was that the boy should learn all the 
fundamentals of agriculture through general treatment, and only 
when he had mastered them come to the definite applications of such 
principles to the actual sort of farming which interested him. He 
must, of course, stay in school till the fourth year to get at the 
really usable connections. The present theory is still that the boy 

i6o 



shall master the larger principles, but that he shall learn them not in 
the abstract, but through definite association with recognized farm 
enterprises. General information is still given, perhaps, in more 
than necessary measure for vocational purposes, but at least the 
attempt is made to give it in connection with the enterprises to 
which it lends meanings of a larger sort. The "fundamentals" 
of soils, technology of manuring, feeding, etc., are now taught, not 
as separate subjects, but in connection with the raising of specific 
crops or types of crops, the management of particular animals or 
types of animals, etc. At least the tendency to such treatment as 
against the general informational and subject treatment is marked. 
As has been noted, the policy of the division is to encourage the 
organization of teaching content about definite farm enterprises 
and jobs. The move to teach the boy in terms of the work he is 
likely to do, as well as through actual participation in that sort of 
work, instead of teaching a subject apart and through the written 
and spoken word mainly, is evident even in a study of the sugges- 
tions with respect to content made by the division. More and more 
the boy is studying agriculture rather than about agriculture. 

The second marked change is the abandonment of the block 
system in the several years of the course. It used to be the custom 
for the pupil to study a subject, such as soils or dairy husbandry, 
for a certain period of months, — usually half of the academic year, — 
to the exclusion of any other in the field of agriculture. With the 
completion of that period of study he "was through with the sub- 
ject" and ready to embark upon the next. So long as the mastery 
of an organized body of information in relation to no particular 
problem or other was held to be good vocational teaching, as it is 
still held to be good teaching in many of the studies of the high 
school, such a block system had certain advantages which are fairly 
obvious, particularly from the administrative standpoint. But 
with the acceptance of the view that good vocational teaching 
means instruction and training of the boy in the job he has to do, 
the possibiUties of such a system for purposes of satisfactory teach- 
ing were much diminished. Both training and instruction must be 
adapted to the sequential development of farm problems and the 
opportunities for participation in genuine farm work. Now such 
II i6i 



problems and opportunities are not matters of schoolman's logic, 
but of biologic development in plants and animals, of economic 
demand and supply, and chiefly of seasonal changes in climate. 
Accordingly, the present system of study is placed on a seasonal 
rather than a logical basis. Studies are in all cases pursued through 
the year, at least, and for the year in parallel rather than in sequence 
The opportunities for effective teaching in terms of concrete experi- 
ence, through the use of farm and community resources, for moti- 
vated study, and for the correlation of interrelated studies, are 
obviously very much increased. A further extension of the policy 
is evident in the supervisory attitude toward shop work. Not only 
is the division advocating a greater and greater supplanting of 
formal shop group instruction by the home construction and repair 
jobs of the farm, but also that the work in construction and repair 
be extended throughout the course rather than restricted to a 
single year. Thus a boy will do the construction and repair work 
appropriate to the conduct of a poultry project in the year in which 
he studies poultry; that which is appropriate to a dairy project in 
the year in which he studies dairy husbandry; he will make hot-bed 
or cold-frame at the time and in the case that hot-bed and cold- 
frame are necessary to the solution of genuine problems for him. 
That organization has not yet progressed very far for the reason 
that so many teachers are insufficiently trained in shop work to 
possess a great resourcefulness in the teaching of it, and, further, 
because they are able to rely on a ready-made shop course devel- 
oped in the form of a publication. The majority of teachers are 
still giving the approved 90 double periods of shop work in the first 
year and in the first year only. The actual improvement has been 
mainly in the elimination of a number of vocationally inappropri- 
ate shop projects and the substitution therefor of such jobs as are 
likely to be done on farms. But the advocacy of the policy by the 
supervisory force is encouraging. A further extension, to include 
at least those portions of the engineering study which deals with 
machines of the farm and the layout and measurement operations, 
would add to the ultimate efficiency of agricultural teaching. 

The foregoing changes of pohcy indicate the possible ultimate 
adoption of a system of parallel seasonal units of instruction chosen 

162 



in view of the nature of regional farming. Such could be combined 
in any given year to meet the needs of the majority of pupils 
enrolled for the work in the several successive grades. Thereby 
would be done away with the present failure to reach the majority 
of pupils with the most significant training and instruction. A boy, 
for example, in a region where the type of farming included a dairy 
major, might be enabled to study the parallel units of herd manage- 
ment and forage crop raising in the first year of his course. If a 
majority of the boys were likely to remain in school, as is so often 
the case but one or two years, such an arrangement would be of 
decided benefit to them and to the community. Further, a certain 
number of boys not now in the high school at all might be encour- 
aged to come in for a year in the agricultural work if they could in 
that year study and devote all or most of their attention to the two, 
three, or four units most appropriate to the kind of farming in 
which they are already engaged or have in prospect. It is not 
suggested that the adoption of a parallel unit organization will solve 
the problem of reaching that mass of boys who are out of school 
and on farms. It is doubtful that resident teaching at the high 
school can ever go far to the solution of the problem. But it would 
enable, without duplication of material, equipment, or effort on the 
teacher's part, the reaching of a number of special students who are 
not now reached by the high school teaching. Consideration of 
the possibilities of some such organization of the content studies 
is recommended by the surveyor to the authorities of the Division 
of Vocational and Extension Education. No revolution is implied 
if the present policy is accurately interpreted by the surveyor. 

The adoption of units extending over a period of more than one 
year would be very desirable in certain cases, but the possibilities 
of such an organization are distinctly limited under a single teacher. 
Alternation of study years in the upper part of the program is an 
administrative necessity if any range of offerings is to be preserved. 
Such alternation does away with the possibility of two-year or three- 
year units in a single study. But, for the most part, the loss will 
not be great. A boy should be fairly launched with respect to a 
major enterprise, even, by a well-developed year of work in close 
relation to it. 

163 



The Military Training Commission of the State of New York was 
able, in the year 1918, to enroll more than 14,000 boys of the ages 
sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen, who were employed on farms and 
not in school. At that time there was great pressure upon boys to 
work on farms for patriotic reasons, but also great inducement, 
through high wages for unskilled labor, for boys to leave the farm 
and to go to work in industry. Thus it is not likely that the num- 
ber of boys of high school age at present engaged in farm work and 
out of school is less than the figures indicate. If boys of fourteen 
and fifteen be included, it is certain that the actual number is con- 
siderably greater. The report of the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education states that the total number of boys enrolled in agricul- 
ture in secondary schools of New York in 1920-21, including the 
State schools as well as the high schools, and short courses as well 
as full courses, was approximately 1,800. On that basis the number 
of boys now reached by the organization of vocational agriculture is 
conservatively not more than one in eight, more probably not one 
in ten. Of the implications of such a state of affairs the division is 
acutely aware. Short courses have been strenuously urged upon 
the attention of high school teachers, but thus far the success of 
such courses has been small. Six schools reported the offering of 
short courses in 1919-20, two in 1920-21. Moreover, those courses 
have been directed in considerable part to the needs of adult prac- 
tising farmers, rather than to the needs of employed boys who may 
look forward to agricultural pursuits of a managerial type. 

There are several suggestions for using the high school which 
appear to have merit. The offering of courses running from the close 
of harvest and fall work until the opening of spring work is one, the 
offering of still shorter courses at the high school or at centers apart 
from the high school is another. Both imply that the high school 
teacher has resources of time and energy that he is not likely to have 
under the present four year organization, including the conduct of 
junior project work. When the determination of courses for the 
several communities of the State has been more accurately made, 
it will doubtless be found that the four-year course is unnecessary 
in a good many cases. Then it will be possible to contemplate 
using the high school teacher for the more effective reaching of the 

164 



boys who need it most. No attempt will be made here to discuss 
the relative merits of the foregoing suggestions or that of the plan 
for the employment of full-time itinerant teachers to work among 
the farm boys with small groups and individual supervision. The 
division is as fully cognizant of them as the surveyor. Only this 
one recommendation is urged upon the division; that in the formu- 
lation of plans it give its attention to the boy on the farm and not to 
his father. The State and the Federal government already have 
set up agencies for dealing with the problem of the adult farmer in 
the extension service of the agricultural college. In so far as that 
service needs enlargement or reorganization to greater effectiveness 
it is not the problem of the State Department of Education. Until 
it has solved the problem of reaching the adolescent boy in a large 
and effective manner it need not take up the task of coordinate 
supplementation of the work of another agency, desirable as such 
may be from the point of view of the welfare of the State. In the 
long run it has the larger and the more significant problem to solve. 
Every resource should be used to that end. The ground has 
hardly been scratched as yet. 

Study of Content of the Course 

In order to check upon the actual content of the agricultural 
course in 1920-21 the surveyor listed under the various subjects 
every topic included by any teacher in the State in the prehminary 
plans submitted to the Division of Vocational and Extension Educa- 
tion. Mimeographed copies of those lists were then distributed to 
the teachers in the 66 schools of the rural districts with the request 
that they check all items considered in their teaching and report the 
number of teaching periods actually used for study of the major 
groups of topics. The burden thus placed upon teachers was 
heavy, but the response was gratifying. Two teachers in three 
sent in reports for the subjects taught during the year. 

Because of the expense of printing the entire course in such detail 
it is thought best to present as representative of the situation only 
those subjects most frequently reported and taught to the largest 
number of pupils. The following outlines and summaries have 
been made up from 31 reports on farm crops and soils, 27 on poultry 

165 



husbandry, and 26 on farm shop work. They give a picture of the 
course as taught in terms of topic content, but not at all in terms of 
organization or sequence of topics. Though attempt was made to 
group under large headings in accordance with the practice of 
a majority of teachers, the groupings are not by any means uni- 
formly those in use. On that account it was difficult for some 
teachers, even with records at hand, to give more than an approxi- 
mate estimate of the time allotted to the several groups, and that 
fact should be borne in mind in study of the summaries. Figures 
showing the order of recitation, laboratory, and field study, and the 
seasonal ordering of topics were insufficient to be usable, desirable 
as such information may be in reporting the actual status. In spite 
of deficiencies it is believed that students of the report will gain a 
fairly accurate knowledge of what is taught in the way of agricul- 
tural technology to a majority of pupils in the "vocational schools" 
in agriculture. 



FARM CROPS AND SOILS 
Topics Considered in the TEACinNG of From 76 to 100 Percent of Schools 



Plant Study 

Plant food requirements 

How the plant gets its food 

The sources of plant food 
The Corn Crop 

Dent com 

FHnt com 

Sweet corn 

Pop-corn 

Food value of corn 

CHmatic requirements 

Soil requirements 

Production of corn 

In New York State 

In the county 

Laboratory study of the corn plant 

Field study of the corn plant 

Study of the ear 

Study of the kernel 

Scoring corn 

Judging corn 

Seed testing of corn 

Field selection 

Ear selection 

Care of seed corn 

Improvement of corn 

The ear row test 



Corn breeding 
Seed per acre 
Preparation of the soil 
Corn planting 
Cultivation of com 
Harvesting com 
Com silage 
Silos 

Storage of com 
Diseases 
Insect enemies 
Place in the rotation 

Other Cereal Crops 
Wheat 
Oats 

CHmatic requirements 
Soil requirements 
Study of the plant 
Study of the head 

Hay Crops 
Timothy 
Mixtures 

CHmatic adaptations 
Soils adaptations 
Manurial requirements 
Identification of seed 



i66 



Potatoes 

Origin and history 
Field study- 
Tuber study 
Variety study 
Improvement 
Hill selection 
Mass selection 
Certified seed 
Storage of seed 
Treatment of seed 
Potato planters 
Preparation of the soil 
Manuring 
Lime and potatoes 
Methods of planting 
Tillage 
HiUing 
Spraying 
Diseases 
Fertilizers and formulas 

Weeds 

Eradication of weeds 

Crop Rotation 
Local rotations 
Planning rotations 



Soils 

Acidity, Alkalinity, and Testing 

Causes of acidity and alkalinity 

Testing 

Use of soils auger 

Collecting samples 

Litmus test 

Vegetation as an index 
Soil Water 

Absorption 

Hygroscopic moisture 

Capillary water 

Capillary movement 

Evaporation 

Transpiration 

Mulching 
Tillage 

Fall plowing 

Spring plowing 
Drainage 

Surface drainage 
Soil Amendment 

Relation to nitrification 
Green Manures 

Leguminous crops as manures 

Plant Food Carriers 

Calculations to standard formulas 
Rate and method of application 



The content here given may be taken as representing very nearly 
in the minds of teachers the ''fundamentals" of the crops and soils 
subject. It is noteworthy in general for two things — (1) the 
absence of ''frills," and (2) the selection for emphasis of crops 
important to New York State farming. The influence of standard 
texts appears, of course, but adaptation to a State program is 
evident. 



Additional Topics Considered in 51 to 75 Percent of the Schools 
IN Farm Crops and Soils 



Plant Study 

Study of the parts of plants 

The structure and function of the 

leaf, stem, roots, and flower 
Pollination and fertilization 
Chemical composition of plants 
Osmosis 
Photosynthesis 
Natural protection of seeds 
Dissemination of seeds 
Methods of propagation 



Crops 

Field crops 

Forage crops 

Crops of New York State 

Crops of the county 

Local crop survey 

Crop survey of home farm 

The Corn Crop 
Origin of com 
History 



167 



Additional Topics Considered in 51 to 75 Percent of the Schools in 
Farm Crops and Soils — (Continued) 



The Corn Crop — (Continued) 
Classification 
Uses of corn 
World production 
The com belt 
The standing of the States 
Ear com exhibit 
Computation of stand 
Com planters 
Cultivation of corn 
Harvesting machinery 
Shocking 
Pulling 
Marketing 
Weeds 

Variety study 
Variety tests 

Other Cereal Crops 
Barley 
Rye 

Buckwheat 
CUmatic adaptations 
Soils adaptations 
Uses 

Study of plant 
Study of head 
Seed selection 
Seed testing 
Seed per acre 
Place in rotation 

Leguminous Crops 
Alfalfa 

Study of plant 
Sweet clover 
Red clover 
Mixtures 
Nitrogen fixation 
Preparation of soil 
Seed per acre 
Use in rotation 

Hay Crops 

The hay crop in New York 

Local survey of hay 

Study of grasses 

Study of plants (grasses) 

Germination tests 

Purity tests 

Cost of seed 

Seed per acre 

Preparation of soil 

Sowing 



Haymaking methods 
Hay machinery 
Storage of hay 
Orchard grass 
Red top 

Pastures 

Importance of pasture 
Methods of pasture 
Seeding 
Seed mixtures 
Care of pastures 
Pasture grasses 

Potatoes 

Climate and soil 

Distribution and statistics 

Group classification 

Local survey 

Uses of potatoes 

Morphology 

Scoring 

Judging 

Home-grown seed 

Exhibits 

Cost of seed 

Greening 

Cutting 

Tillage machinery 

Dusting 

Harvesting methods 

Digging 

Sorting and grading 

Storage and holding 

Marketing 

Growers' associations 

Prices 

Insects 

Place in rotation 

Weeds 

Methods of growth 

Collection 

Seed identification 

Importance 

Removal of plant food 

Moisture removal 

Weed legislation 

Crop Rotation 
Reasons for rotation 
Typical rotations 
Cropping systems 



1 68 



Soils — Classification 
Rocks and rock weathering 
Residual soils 
Glacial soils 
Cumulose soils 
Colluvial soils 
Alluvial soils 
Locustrine soils 
Identification of soils 

Soils — Physics 

Structure and texture 

Surface soil 

Subsoil 

Physical composition 

Soil separates 

Soil classes 

Loams 

Silts 

Clays 

Sands 

Humus 

Elements in the soil 

Composition of the earth's crust 

Supply of plant foods 

Germ life in the soil 

Aerobic bacteria 

Anaerobic bacteria 

Availability of plant foods 

Nitrification 

Denitrification 

Decay 

Putrefaction 

Oxidation 

Reduction 

Erosion 

Porosity of soils 

Acidity, Alkalinity, and Testing 
Acid salts in soils 
Carbonates 

Hydrochloric acid test 
Truog test 
Field signs of acidity 

Soil Water 
Percolation 
Retention 

Hydrostatic moisture 
Optimum content 
Wilting point 
Plasticity 
Cohesion 
Flocculation 
Freezing and thawing 
Clod forming 



Soil Air 
Effects 
Content 
Movement 

Soil Temperature 
Effects of color 
Moisture content 
Evaporation 
Decay of organic matter 

Tillage 
Plowing 
Plows 

Depth to plow 
Condition of soil 
Harrowing 

Harrows and weeders 
Rolling and dragging 
Clod crushers 
Pulverizers 
Subsoihng 
Cultivation 
Cultivators 

Drainage 
Effects of drainage 
Principles 
Water table 
Types of drainage 
Underdrainage 

Soil Amendment 

Counteraction of acidity 
Relation to legumes 
Release of plant food 
Sources of lime 
Effects on soil 

Green Manures 
Systems of green manuring 
Advantages 
Disadvantages 
Decay in the soil 
Other than leguminous crops 

Plant Food Carriers 
Sodium nitrate 
Ammonium sulphate 
Potassium sulphate 
Acid phosphate 
Forms of nitrogen 
Forms of potassium 
Forms of phosphorus 
Unit costs 

Commercial fertilizers 
Crop requirements 



169 



Additional Topics Considered in 51 to 75 Percent of the Schools in 
Farm Crops and Soils — (Continued) 



Plant Food Carriers — (Continued) 
Home mixing 
Time to apply 
Residual values 

Farm Manures 
Composition 
Horse manure 
Cow manure 



Sheep manure 
Hog manure 
Poultry manure 
Effects of feeding 
Effects of age 
Nitrification 
Rate of application 
Time to apply 
Place in rotation 



Since the majority of teachers include at least the preceding 
topics, there is hardly a poverty of technology in the course. There 
are shown in the second most popular selection attention to essential 
principles, adaptation to State and local needs, and an increasing 
trend to technicality in soils and plant study. When botany, 
biology, or general science is included it seems overdone. 



Additional Topics Considered in the Teaching of 26 to 50 Percent of 
THE Schools in Farm Crops and Soils 



Crops 

General classification 

Botanical classification 

Root crops 

Fiber crops 

Truck crops 

Crops of the United States 

The Corn Crop 

Botanical classification 
Soft corn 
Local corn census 
Corn judging contest 

Other Cereal Crops 

Origin and history of wheat 
Uses of oats, barley, rye, buck- 
wheat, millet 
Climatic and soils requirements of 

millet 
Study of millet plant and head 
Varieties of wheat, oats, barley, rye, 

buckwheat, millet 
Variety tests of oats, barley, rye 
Seed selection oats, barley, rye, 

buckwheat, and millet 
Seed testing of wheat, oats, barley, 

rye, buckwheat, millet 
Improvement and breeding of wheat 
and oats 



Seed treatment for wheat, oats, bar- 
ley, rye 
Care of seed of wheat and oats 
Seed per acre, wheat, barley, rye, 

buckwheat, millet 
Preparation of soil for wheat, oats, 

barley, rye, buckwheat 
Manuring of wheat, oats, barley, 

rye, buckwheat 
Place in rotation of wheat, oats, 

barley, rye, millet 
Sowing of wheat, oats, barley, rye, 

buckwheat 
Drills and planters for wheat and 

oats 
Tillage of wheat and oats 
Harvesting wheat, oats, barley, 

rye 
Tillage machinery for wheat, oats, 

barley, rye, buckwheat, millet 
Storage of wheat and oats 
Legal measures of wheat, oats, bar- 
ley, buckwheat, millet 
Yields of wheat, oats, barley, rye, 

buckwheat 
Scoring wheat, oats, barley, rye, 

buckwheat, millet 
Judging wheat, oats, barley, rye, 

buckwheat, millet 



170 



Leguminous Crops 

Nitrogen fixation by red clover, 

alsike clover, other clovers, beans, 

peas 
Study of nodules on alfalfa, sweet 

clover, red clover 
Inoculation methods with alfalfa 

and sweet clover 
Use in rotation of sweet clover, red 

clover, alsike, and other clovers 
Use in the soil 
Feeding value of alfalfa, sweet 

clover, red clover, alsike 
Study of the plant of sweet clover, 

red clover, alsike 
Climatic and soils requirements 
Liming of legumes 
Varieties of alfalfa 
Seed tests of alfalfa and clovers 
Cost of seed 
Preparation of soil for clovers, 

beans, and peas 
Seed per acre for above crops 
Clover mixtures 
Other mixtures 
Sowing methods 
Time to sow 
Nurse crops 
Tillage 
Harvesting 
Yields of sweet clover, red clover, 

alsike, other clovers, soy beans, 

vetch 
Diseases of alfalfa and clovers 
Insect enemies of alfalfa 

Hay Crops 
Method of growth 
Red top 

Kentucky blue grass 
Canada blue grass 
Oats and peas 
Oats and barley 
Cereal mixtures for hay 
Baling hay 
Marketing hay 

Calculating contents of bales and 
stacks 

Soiling and Soiling Crops 
Soiling systems 
Advantages 
Disadvantages 

Pastures 
Manuring 
Blue grass 



Red top 
White clover 

Cabbage 

Cabbage in the county 

Varieties 

Seed testing 

Growing seedling plants 

Preparation of soil 

Manuring 

Planting 

Tillage 

Thinning 

Harvesting 

Storing 

Construction of pits 

Marketing 

Diseases 

Insect enemies 

Potatoes 

Composition of the tuber 
Drawing of the tuber 
Varietal mixture 
Northern grown seed 

Root Crops 

Uses of mangels and turnips 
Culture of mangels 
Harvesting mangels 
Storage of mangels 

Weeds 

Crop adaptations 
Botanical study 
Crowding 

Crop Rotations 
Single cropping 
Alternating crops 
Diversified cropping 
Fallowing 
Manure in the rotation 

Soils — Classification 
Marine and loessial soils 
Soils maps and surveys 
Soils series and local survey 

Soils — Physics 

Microscopic examination 

Chemical composition 

Hydrolysis 

Colloids 

Leaching 

Review of chemistry 

Acidity, Alkalinity, and Testing 
Alkaline salts 
Ammonia test 



171 



Additional Topics Considered in the 
THE Schools in Farm Crops 
Soil Temperature 

Exposure 

Depth 

Season 

Soil Amendments 

Acid and basic radicals 

Effects of Ca and Mg on plants 

Effects on bacterial content 
Green Manures 

Relations to liming 

Effects 

System planning 

Field study 

System planning 

Local practices 
Plant Food Carriers 

Sources 

World supply 

Evaluating 



Teaching of 26 to 50 Percent of 
AND Soils — (Continued) 
Effect on plants of N, K, P 
Potassium carriers 
Sulphur carriers 

Farm Manures 
Kinds of litter 
Uses of litter 
Burning 

Loss of ammonia 
Denitrification 
Preservatives 
Reinforcing manures 
Acid phosphate 
Floats 
Kainit 
Composting 
Handling manure heap 
Methods of spreading 
Crop adaptations 
Residual values 



The trend of such a course as is offered by the third group of 
teachers must inevitably be toward the academic and informational. 
There are certain evidences of local adaptation, as in the introduc- 
tion of cabbage, but much more of the effect of the text and college 
"subject" treatment. It is worth noting that there is as yet no 
consideration of crops that cannot be grown in New York. 

Additional Topics Considered in the Teaching of One-Fourth or Less 
OF THE Schools in Farm Crops and Soils 



Crops 
Agriculture vs. horticulture 

Other Cereal Crops 

Origin and history of 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Buckwheat 

Millet 

Uses of 

Sorghum 

Kaffir corn 

Variety test of wheat, buckwheat, 
millet 

Seed selection of millet 

Improvement and breeding of bar- 
ley, rye, buckwheat, millet 

Care of seed of barley, rye, buck- 
wheat, and millet 

Preparation of soil for millet 

Manuring of millet 



Scoring millet 

Drills and planters for barley, rye, 

buckwheat, and millet 
Tillage of barley, rye, buckwheat, 

and millet 
Harvesting buckwheat and millet 
Harvesting machinery for wheat, 

oats, barley, rye, buckwheat, 

millet 
Storage of barley, rye, buckwheat, 

millet 
Elevator associations 
Legal measure of rye 
Standard grades of wheat, oats, 

barley, and rye 

Yield of millet 

Leguminous Crops 

Nitrogen fixation by soy beans and 

vetch 
Study of nodules on alsike, beans, 

peas, soy beans, vetch 



172 



Symbiosis on leguminous crops 
Method of inoculation for legumes 

other than alfalfa and sweet clover 
Origin and history of alfalfa, sweet 

clover, red clover, alsike, other 

clovers, peas, beans, soy beans 

and vetch 
Use in rotation of beans, peas, soy 

beans, vetch 
Use in soil of leguminous crops 
Feed values of clovers, beans, peas, 

soy beans, and vetch 
Study of plant in other clovers, 

beans, peas, soy beans, and vetch 
Climatic and soils requirements of 

minor legumes 
Liming for beans, peas, soy beans, 

and vetch 
Varieties of minor legumes 
Variety tests of alfalfa, sweet clover, 

red clover, etc., to vetch 
Seed tests of minor legumes 
Cost of seed of minor legumes 
Preparation of soil for soy beans and 

vetch 
Legume mixtures (minor) 
Time to sow peas, soy beans, and 

vetch 
Minor legumes and nurse crops 
Tillage of minor legumes 
Yields of beans and peas 
Diseases of minor legumes 
Insect enemies of legumes other 

than alfalfa 
Local survey of leguminous crops 
Hay Crops 
Grass is king 
Major and minor grasses 
Soiling and Soiling Crops 
Methods of soiling 
Corn 
Miller 
Buckwheat 

Miscellaneous Crops 
Importance 
Distribution 
Uses 
Culture 
Harvesting 
Enemies 
Flax 
Tobacco 
Rice 
Peanuts 
Sweet potatoes 
Sugar-cane 



Cabbage 
Origin and history 
Distribution 
Classification 
Uses 

Transplanting 
Marketing 

Canning Crops 
Canning methods 
Canning industry 
Growing canning crops 
Tomatoes 
Lima beans 
Sweet corn 

Root Crops 

Origin and history of mangels, 

turnips, carrots 
Uses of carrots 
Varieties of mangels, turnips, and 

carrots 
Methods of growth of root crops 
Structure of roots 
Physiology 

Planting of turnips and carrots 
Culture of turnips and carrots 
Harvesting 
Storage 
Enemies 

Weeds 

Botanical classification 

The Woodlot 
Value 
Products 

Identification of trees 
Tree weeds 

Estimating value of lots 
Rate of growth 
Thinning out 
Value of forests 
Conservation 
Forest fires 
Planting trees 
Reseeding 
Cutting methods 
Preservation of lumber 
Pasture in the woodlot 

Acidity, Alkalinity, and Testing 
Organic by-products in the soil 

Plant Food Carriers 
Nitrogen carriers 
Phosphorus carriers 
Manures (guano, etc.) 
Kainit 



173 



The introduction of the woodlot by the minority of teachers and 
the increased use of the local survey are worthy of commendation. 
On the other hand, in spite of those and other evidences of selective 
adaptation, it is clear that the minority of teachers are engaged in 
attempting to cover all the "ground" allotted to the subject by 
text writers, even to rice and sugar cane. 

In general it may be said that there is an upper group of teachers 
making rather careful selection of content and a lower group who 
are pretty much slaves to the text. When it is remembered that 
approximately the same number of hours are devoted by the first 
group to a relatively few topics as are given by the second group to 
the "entire field," it is fairly evident that we have a range from full 
and thorough treatment to a smattering of information. 

The fault of such a course as that offered by about half the 
teachers is that of the general subject text from which it is derived. 
To sell profitably a book must reach a large number of buyers. 
To reach them it must meet a wide range of needs. But at the 
same time it must be enclosed between two covers in portable form 
and at a reasonable price. Accordingly, it is almost certain to con- 
tain a great deal that is of no significance to a particular reader, 
and not enough with reference to particular needs. A course de- 
signed to touch the interests of every one from a New York or- 
chardist to a Louisiana planter is not well adapted to the use of a 
small group of boys from a particular corner of one New York 
county. 

B 

POULTRY HUSBANDRY 

Topics Considered by From 76 to 100 Percent of Schools in Poultry 

Husbandry 

Types of Fowl Culling the Flock 

Origin of domestic fowl Molting 

Egg type Vent 

General purpose type Signs of weak constitution 

Characteristics 

Breeds of Poultry Incubation 

Plymouth Rocks ^electing eggs for hatchmg 

•^ Care of eggs for hatchmg 

Breeding of Poultry Taking off the hatch 

Pure bred vs. mongrel Natural incubation 

174 



The minimum essentials upon which all teachers agree are cer- 
tainly meager even from the point of view of the owner of a farm 
flock. Just why the origin of the fowl should be uniformly taught, 
while the Leghorn fowl is omitted, is difficult to see. Otherwise the 
practical emphasis is evident. 

Additional Topics Considered by From 51 to 75 Percent of Teachers in 

Poultry Husbandry 



The Poultry Industry 
Importance 
In New York State 
In the community 

Opportunities in Poultry 
Markets 

Poultry as a Minor Enterprise 
Farm poultry keeping 

Getting a Start with Poultry 
Starting with fowls 
Starting with eggs 
Starting with day-old chicks 

Types of Fowl 

Adaptations of types 
Meat type 

Points of a Fowl 
Naming and identification 

External Anatomy 
Feather tracts 

Breeds of Poultry 
Rhode Island Reds 
Wyandottes 
Leghorns 
Characteristics 

Judging Fowl 

Judging laying hens 

Breeding Poultry 
Heredity 
Inheritance 
Variation 
Inbreeding 

Culling the Flock 
Pigmentation 
Condition 
Signs of vigor 
Disposal of slackers 

Nutrition and Physiology 
Respiration 
Excretion 



175 



Feeding Principles 
Feeding standards 
Balancing rations for 

Laying hens 

Chicks 

Growing stock 

Breeding stock 
Feeding Practices 
Quantities of feed 
Frequency of feeding 
Methods of feeding 
Watering methods 
Range feeding 
Use of green feeds 
Use of meat feeds 
Local feeding practices 
Practices of successful feeders 
College and station practices 
Cornell rations 
Grain mixtures 
Fattening 

Use of litter, grit, and shell 
Poultry Feeds 

Survey of local feed supply 
Composition of feeds 
Nutritive ratio 
Grain feeds 
Costs 
Embryology 

Evolution of the chick in the egg 
Incubation 

Artificial incubation 
Heating 

Temperature regulation 
Ventilation 
Turning the eggs 
Testing the eggs 
Incubator cellars 
Construction 
Management 
Variations among breeds 
Selection of sitting hens 
Care and management 
Preparing the nest 



Additional Topics Considered by From 51 to 75 Percent of Teachers in 
Poultry Husbandry — (Continued) 



Brooding 

Artificial brooding 

Types of brooders 

Indoor brooders 

Outdoor brooders 

Brooder houses 

Heatless brooders 

Management of brooders 

Heating 

Regulation of temperature 

Ventilation 

Cleanliness and sanitation 

Natural brooding 

Chick Raising 
Handling chicks from the hatch 
Marking 

Selection of strong chicks 
Separating the sexes 
Buying live chicks 
Shipping live chicks 

Housing of Poultry 
Poultry house survey 
Types of construction 
Double span 
Single span 
Three-quarter span 
Monitor house 
Long house 
Colony house 
Portable house 
Materials of construction 
Making out lumber schedule 
Making plans of houses 
Ventilation 
Lighting 

Artificial lighting 
Floor space 

Placing of feeding devices 
Placing of watering devices 
Roosts 

Dropping boards 
Dust boxes 
Nests 
Broody coops 



Live and Dressed Poultry 
Practice in kiUing methods 
Dry picking 

Poultry Equipment 
Litter storage bins 

Management of Poultry 
Laying hens 
Breeding stock 

Eggs 

Selection of eggs 

Candling 

Grading 

Judging 

Storage 

Water glass 

Buying and Marketing 
Live poultry 
Eggs for market 
Eggs for hatching 
Day-old chicks 

Diseases, Enemies, Vices 
Preventive sanitation 
Protective measures 
Lice and mites 
Powders and sprays 
Methods of use 
Postmortem diagnosis 
Symptoms 
Treatment 
Roup 

Chicken-pox 
Gape worms 
Egg eating 
Feather pulling 
Cannibalism 

Records and Accounts 
Egg records 
Trap nesting 
Feeding records 
Purchase and sale records 
Cash accounts 
Cost accounts 



It appears that the majority of teachers are agreed upon a selec- 
tion of topics ample for the conduct of the minor enterprise of 
poultry raising if insufficient to the commercial poultryman. 
It would be interesting to discuss the value of some items from that 

176 



point of view. But, on the whole, the evidence of adaptation to a 
prevailing need is very encouraging. 



Additional Topics Considered by 26 to 50 Percent of Teachers in Poul- 
try Husbandry 



The Poultry Industry 
Extent 
Distribution 

Statistics and areas in United States 
In county 

Opportunities in Poultry Raising 
Social features 
Health factors 
Labor requirements 
Investment 
Income 

Choosing a poultry farm 
Neighborhood 
Site 
Soil 

Drainage 
Location 
Topography 
Exposure 
Climate 
Transportation 
Methods of purchase 
Size of farm 
Qualifications of the poultryman 

Commercial Poultry Keeping 
Egg farming 
Market poultry 
Breeding stock 
Day-old chicks 
Longhouse system 
Colony system 
Combination system 
Examples of commercial systems 
New Jersey 
Petaluma 

Poultry as a Minor Enterprise 
Advantages 
Disadvantages 
The home flock 
Utility fowl 

Special Types of Poultry 
Breeds of 
Ducks 
Geese 
Turkeys 



Poultry Survey 
Kinds 
Breeds 
Varieties 
Number 
Hens 
Pullets 

Cocks and cockerels 
Egg yields 
Markets 
Prices 

Getting a Start with Poultry 
Learning the business 
Need for experience 
Building up from a small beginning 

Types of Fowl 
History of types 

Points of a Fowl 

Chart and score card points 
Fancy points 
Utility points 
Scoring a bird 

External Anatomy 
Muscular control of feathers 
Growth of feathers 
Skin 
Scales 
Beak 
Eyes 
Ears 
Toes 
Claws 
Spurs 

Internal Anatomy 
Practice in dissection 
Chart or diagram 
Reproductive system 
Digestive system 
Circulatory system 
Respiratory system 
Muscular system 

Breeds of Poultry 
History of breeds 
Minorcas 
Andalusians 



12 



177 



Additional Topics Considered by 26 to 50 Percent of Teachers in Poul- 
try Husbandry — (Continued) 



Breeds of Poultry — (Continued) 
Javas 

Dominiques 
Brahmas 
Cochins 
Orpingtons 
Dorkings 

Judging Fowl 

Cocks and cockerels 

Pullets 

Point scoring 

Standard scoring 

Utility scoring 

Comparative judging 

Utility judging 

Age and sex characteristics 

Preparing for exhibition 

Breeding of Poultry 
Brewer's principles 
Mendel's law 
Mutation 
Unit characters 
Prepotency 
Sex inheritance 
Breeding systems 
Line breeding 
Out breeding 
Crossing 
Mating practices 
Size of mating pens 
Double matings 
Pullets vs. hens 
Selection of breeding stock 

Culling the Flock 
Fat test of blood 

Nutrition and Physiology 
Composition of the body 
Water 

Mineral matter 
Fat 

Protein 
Digestion 
Assimilation 

Feeding Principles 
Evaluating rations 
Fattening rations 

Feeding Practices 
Storrs rations 
New Jersey rations 



Dry mash mixtures 
Wet mashes 
For hens 
For chicks 
Scratch feeds 

For hens 

For chicks 
Use of bone 
House and yard feeding 

Poultry Feeds 
Animal feeds 
Green feeds 
Minerals 

Embryology 

Structure of the egg 
Diagramming the egg 

Incubation 

Moisture content 
Delousing methods 

Brooding 
Management of brooding 
Hens 

CmcK Raising 

Special feeding methods 

Yards and runs 

Shade and shelter 

Watering 

Exercise 

Weaning 

Range movement 

Protection from enemies 

Rats, weasels, skunks, 

Hawks, crows, owls 

Ailments 

Indigestion 

Scours 

Bacillary white diarrhea 

Feather pulling 

Cannibalism 

Housing of Poultry 
Flooring 
Roofing 
Covering 

Dimensions of houses 
Arrangement 
Access 

Figuring costs 
Remodeling 



178 



Yarding of Poultry 

Size of yards 

Shape of yards 

Fencing 

Shelter and shading 

Alternate yarding 
Poultry Equipment 

Feed hoppers 

Feed troughs 

Nests and trap nests 

Broody coops 
Management of Poultry 

Winter management 

Summer management 

Broiler raising 

Cleanliness 

Care of utensils 

Exercise 

Value of droppings 

Disposal of droppings 

Preservation of droppings 

Treatment of water 

Banding 

Eggs 
Handling 
Scoring 



Cold storage 

Preservation in lime or salt 
Buying and Marketing 

Cooperative buying of supplies 

Individual buying 

Cooperative selling 

Individual selling 

Dressed poultry 

Packing 

Shipment 

Retail 

Commission house 

Wholesale 

Branding products 

Advertising 

Diseases, Enemies, Vices 
Importance of losses 
Tuberculosis 
Ulcers 
Lameness 

Records and Accounts 
Flock records 
Mortality records 

Poultry Farm Management 
Field study of poultry plants 



The content relates more and more to the commercial poultry 
farm and the needs of the poultry expert. It is doubtful that the 
change is adaptive. It is rather due to the influence of an excellent 
standard text. Necessarily academic treatment grows. 



Additional Topics Considered by One-Fourth or Less of the Teachers 

IN Poultry Husbandry 



The Poultry Industry 

The industry in foreign countries 

Opportunities in Poultry 
Hiring out 
Renting vs. buying 

Commercial Poultry Keeping 
The system of Little Compton 

Special Types of Poultry 
Varieties 
Side lines 

Commercial duck farming 
Diseases 
Guinea fowl 
Pheasants 
Pigeons 
Squab raising 
Runts and homers 



Internal Anatomy 
Nervous system 
Skeletal system 

Judging Fowl 

American standard of perfection 
Exhibition fowls 
Attendance at poultry show 

Breeding of Poultry 
Galton's law 
Attempts to control sex 
Alternating cocks 
Single matings 

Nutrition and Physiology 
Growth 
Work 
Reproduction 



179 



Additional Topics Considered by One-Fourth or Less of the Teachers 

IN Poultry Husbandry — (Continued) 
Poultry Feeds Crates and carriers 

Condiments Litter and feed carriers 

Embryology Dropping boards 

Study of hard-boiled eggs Fountains 

Study of incubator eggs Buying and Marketing 

Housing of Poultry Value of advertising 

Scoring of poultry houses Methods 

Yarding of Poultry Diseases, Enemies, Vices 
Making plans of yards Intestinal parasites 

Calculating costs Poultry Farm Management 
Plowing yards Make plans of whole farm 

Poultry Equipment Cropping plans for poultry 

Feed bins Production maintenance plans 

Exhibit coops Standard provision for increase 

The "subject" of commercial poultry keeping is dominant with 
the last group of teachers. Not quite the same generalization can 
be made with respect to poultry as with farm crops and soils. The 
standard length of course here is 90 double periods, but the varia- 
tions from the standard in time are wide. Thus an abbreviation 
does not in the same measure indicate throughness. The range of 
differences is greater in poultry, as is reasonable if adaptation be 
sought, but the non-selective character of teaching among half the 
teachers is quite as evident. 

C 
FARM SHOP WORK 

Exercises and Projects Carried Out in 76 to 100 Percent of Schools 

Reporting in Shop Work 

Drawing Exercises Reducing stock to dimensions 

, ^'''f''^ Rope Work 
Shop Exercises Tying knots 

Use of tools 

Sharpening tools Shop Project 
Edge tools (Elected) 

Saw fiUng Poultry feed hopper 

Additional Exercises and Projects Carried Out in 51 to 75 Percent of 

Schools Reporting in Shop Work 
Drawing Exercises Use of steel square 

Use of drawing instruments Naming parts of tools 

Drawing lines Chamfering 

Laying out plates Beveling 

Shop Exercises Leather Work 

Adjustment of tools Rivetmg 

Oihng and care of tools Rope Work 

Computing project costs Rope halter 

i8o 



Additional Exercises and Projects Carried Out in 26 to 50 Percent of 
Schools Reporting in Shop Work 



Drawing Exercises 
Isometric drawing 
Geometric figures 
Simple projections 
Types of joints 

Shop Exercises 
Identifying woods 
Computing lumber schedules 

Metal Work 
Soldering 
Drilling 

Working Drawings Required of 
THE Class 
Bench hook 



Nail box 
Feed hopper 

Rope Work 

Whipping 

Splicing 
Shop Projects Required of the 
Class 

(Individual) 

Bench hook 

Saw horse 

(Group) 

Drawers for tools 
Miscellaneous 

Mixing paints and painting 

Mixing putty, cutting glass 



Additional Exercises and Projects Carried Out in One-Fourth or Less 

of the Schools Reporting in Shop Work 

Working Drawings 



Required of Class 
Bread-board 
Book- rack 
China closet 
Laboratory table 
Step-ladder 
School plot (?) 
Saw horse 

Plate of letters and conventions 
Milking steel 
Parts of machinery 
Bag holder 
Whiffletree 
Germination boxes 
Potato plot 

Gary mold for cement posts 
Water-stand 
Oyster-shell hopper 
Oat sprouter 
Trap nest 
Poultry house 



Made by Individuals 
Wash-board 
Tabourette 
Supply rack 
Cupboard 
Kitchen stool 
Book-case 
Window-screen 
BafBe-board ventilator 
Nail box 
Tool box 
Bird house 
Farm gate 
Potato crate 
Cold-frame 
Marker 

Poultry show crate 
Hen coop 
Feed hopper 
Remodeled hen house 
Drinking platform 
Hog feeder 
Dairy barn 
Step-ladder 



Shop Projects Required 

Group Projects Individual Projects 
Model for concrete posts Bread-board 

Kitchen table Bird house 

China closet Step-ladder 

Work bench Tool boxes 

Shop partition Mallets 

Trap nests Bag holder 



iSi 



Additional Exercises and Projects Carried Out in One-Fourth or Less 
OF THE Schools Reporting in Shop Work — (Continued) 

Shop Projects Reqihred 
Individual Projects — {Contimied) Individual Projects (for use of 



Beehive 
Wheelbarrow 
Skis 

Wagon jack 
Milking stool 
Potato crates 
Wash bench 
Marker for corn 
Brooder coop 
Feed hopper 
Exhibit coop 
Oat sprouter 
Drinking platform 
Berry carrying crate 
Harness vise 

Individual Projects 
Wood Work 
Ironing board 
Book-rack 
Towel holder 
Piano stool 
Plant shelf 
Chairs (repaired) 
Nail box 
Brooder house 
Hen house 
Whiffletree 
Clothes-bar 
Water stand 
Metal Work 
Shop exercises 

Fire building 

Banking fires 

Drawing out 

Tapering 

Tempering 

Hack sawing 

Cold chisel 

Plating 

Pipe cutting 

Pipe fitting 
Elected jobs 

Soldering utensils 

Ironing whiffletrees 

Drilling 

Cutting threads 

Making latch 

Tool cabinet bar 



School) 
Ventilator 
Soil tube rack 
Book-shelves 
Book-case 
Fertilizer cabinet 
Sled 

Windows (put in) 
Furniture repaired 
Door lock (put in) 
Axe helve (fitted) 
Hen coops 
Evener 
Baseball bats 
Jumping standards 

Shop Projects Elected 

Concrete Work 
Shop exercises 

Chemistry of cement 

Aggregates 

Mixtures 

Formulas 

Reinforcing 

Forms 

Floating 
Construction jobs 

Piazza floor 

Sidewalk 

Fence posts 
Leather Work 
Repair of belt 
Repair of harness 
Repair of halter 
Making leather halter 
Stitching ends 
Riveting straps 
Rope Work 
End tying 
Crowning 
Lineman's rider 
Sheep bend 
Double bowline 
Miscellaneous 

Varnishing projects and furniture 

Using shellac 

Waxing 

Mixing whitewash 

Setting glass 

Repairing locks 

Plastering 



I»2 



The "fundamentals" upon which the great majority of teachers 
agree are very few in shop work. Exception can hardly be taken to 
them unless it be in the case of lettering, which would seem to be 
a relatively unimportant skill for a farmer of any kind. In so far 
as it needs to be taught it should be in direct connection with the 
few working drawings, and no great perfection insisted upon. That 
about half the teachers still spend the time of pupils in the drawing 
of geometric figures is another index to a lack of selective adapta- 
tion and dependence on a manual. 

There is a reasonably close correlation between the working 
drawings and the shop projects carried out, indicating, perhaps, 
that the drawings are actually used — a sound practice in vocational 
teaching. In the required drawings and projects the old manual 
training influence is still perceptible in the bench hook, the bread- 
board, etc. It is fairly evident also that in some schools it might be 
difficult for a visitor to discover that the class engaged in shop work 
was an agricultural group, if he judged by the products made. 
Again, in some schools boys are being rather freely exploited to make 
repairs and furnish apparatus that should be furnished by school 
authorities. Undoubtedly some value may be derived for the boys 
in the doing of such work, but if, in so doing, they are deprived of a 
superior opportunity in the undertaking of work directly appro- 
priate to vocational needs, then injustice is done. The motive 
derived from making a product appropriate to his own needs is, of 
course, always lost to the pupil. That is, perhaps, less significant 
than the other. He can learn something appropriate to home farm 
use by setting an axe helve or a pane of glass at the school and for 
the school, but the repairing of school chairs and desks, the making 
of cases, racks, and cabinets for school use savors strongly of exploi- 
tation. Less blame is to be placed upon the teacher, who must have 
the apparatus to do his work, than upon the local administrative 
authorities, who permit and encourage exploitation for the sake of 
saving money or effort. In the history of shop work there has 
always been a good deal of pressure brought to bear on the teacher 
to prostitute his teaching in such fashion. Though not conspicuous, 
it appears not entirely absent in the agricultural departments at 
present. One cause, apart from pressure, — and the nature of 
individual projects points somewhat toward its operation — is the 

183 



lack of resource in the untrained and inexperienced, or possibly 
the lazy teacher, which makes him glad to accept any kind of work 
which will occupy the boys with tools during the appointed hours, 
regardless of its appropriateness to vocational education. 

Some boys are undoubtedly in the agricultural course largely 
because it gives them a chance to ''make things with tools." They 
feel no need of and no interest in the making and repair of agricul- 
tural equipment. Shop work should be provided for such boys, 
but not as part of the vocational course in agriculture. 

Teachers have been urged in the past two years to extend their 
work in construction and repair to the inclusion of jobs done at 
home and on the farm, instead of confining it to what can be done 
in the school shop and on the school grounds. In the report forms 
teachers were asked to indicate projects or jobs done at home by the 
letter H. Only four cases appear. But it is not to be assumed that 
the detail was never omitted. The extent of home work directed 
under shop instruction is probably relatively small, however. 

Distribution of Time 

As an index to variations in emphasis and the approach to a 
standard there is given the report of the teachers on the number of 
teaching periods devoted to each of the major topics in Farm Crops 
and Soils, Poultry Husbandry, and Farm Shop Work. Since the 
number of teachers reporting for each topic varies, the returns are 
not quite comparable, but only such topics as are reported on by a 
reasonable number are used. The range from the lowest to the 
highest number of periods is given first; the median or middle 
number below which and above which the teachers distribute 
equally; then the modal number, or that reported by the largest 
single group of teachers. 

The range is astonishingly large. In some measure it undoubtedly 
indicates local adaptation, as, perhaps, in the extreme case of 80 
periods for potatoes, but that is not wholly to be depended on. In 
the testing of soils it would seem, for instance, that even the "sour- 
est" of farming regions would hardly demand the emphasis given 
by 20 periods. Some differences are to be explained by the habit 
of teachers in connecting soils technology with crop technology 
rather than dividing the subject on accepted text lines. Thus, 

184 



though one man devotes but a single period each to tillage and to 

manures, and another 15 and 20 periods respectively, it does not 

follow that the second has treated the study exhaustively and the 

first neglected it. If the tillage of corn and the manuring of corn 

be treated together, as seems appropriate in good teaching, then the 

need for time devoted to development and organization under the 

soils topic is greatly reduced, and vice versa. Since the totals in 

Poultry Husbandry vary more than in the other two studies, the 

differences are not quite so representative. The short selected 

course dealing with farm poultry is not set apart from the long 

''ground covering" and academic course. Variations in shop are 

not easily explained. As was noted in the topic outline, some 

aspects, such as concrete work, are very much neglected, and 

others, such as drawing, pretty uniformly adhered to. Some 

teachers are certainly allowing to the mechanics of drawing a 

greater proportionate share of time than can be justified from the 

standpoint of any farming vocation with which the surveyor is 

acquainted. 

A 
FARM CROPS AND SOILS 



Topic 

Plant study 

The corn crop 

Other cereal crops 

Leguminous crops 

Hay crops 

Soiling and soiling crops . . 

Pastures 

Cabbage 

Potatoes 

Root crops 

Weeds 

Crop rotation 

Soils physics 

Acidity, alkalinity, testing 

Soil water 

Soil air 

Soil temperature 

Tillage 

Drainage 

Soil amendment 

Green manures 

Plant food carriers 

Farm manures 



Range of 


Median 


Modal 


periods 


number 


number 


1-10 


5 


2 


9-25 


18 


15 


3-25 


13 


10 


5-25 


14 


10 


2-17 


6 


6 


1-5 


2 


1 


1-10 


3 


2 


1-10 


3 


3 


6-80 


20 


12 


1-5 


4 


5 


2-10 


5 


5 


1-12 


5 


2 


3-25 


10 


8 


2-20 


6 


6 


3-12 


8 


8 


1-4 


1 


1 


1-4 


2 


1 


2-15 


6 


5 


1-9 


3 


3 


1-18 


4 


4 


1-10 


3 


3 


6-20 


10 


10 


1-20 


7 


7 



B 

Poultry Husbandry 



The poultry industry 

Opportunities in poultry. . . . 
Commercial poultry keeping . 
Poultry as a minor enterprise 

Special types of poultry 

Poultry survey 

Getting a start with poultry. 

Types of fowl 

Points of a fowl 

External anatomy 

Internal anatomy 

Breeds of poultry 

Judging of fowl 

Breeding of poultry 

Culling the flock 

Nutrition and physiology . . . 

Feeding principles 

Feeding practices 

Poultry feeds 

Embryology 

Incubation 

Brooding 

Chick raising 

Housing of poultry 

Yarding of poultry 

Poultry equipment 

Management of poultry 

Live and dressed poultry. . . . 

Eggs 

Buying and marketing 

Diseases, enemies, vices 

Records and accounts 

Poultry farm management . . 



1-4 

1-3 

1-5 

1-5 

1-10 

1-5 

1-3 

1-5 

1-4 

1-5 

1-5 

1-8 

1-13 

1-20 

2-11 

1-5 

3-17 

2-11 

2-10 

1-5 

3-13 

1-8 

2-10 

3-25 

1-3 

1-8 

2-11 

1-6 

1-6 

1-5 

1-8 

1-15 

1-8 



C 

Shop Work 



Drawing exercises. . . . 
Working drawings . . . . 
Shop exercises in wood 
Shop projects in wood . 

Metal work 

Concrete work 

Leather work 

Rope work 

Miscellaneous 




5 
5 

10 
35 
2 
3 
4 
5 
2 



i86 



Texts and References 

Most frequently used texts and references may serve as a further 
index to the technological content of the course. In a large number 
of plans, of course, submitted by teachers it is still possible to 
recognize the text used. That is particularly true in certain sub- 
jects, notably farm management, wherein an exceptionally able 
text exposition has largely served to define the course. The books 
most frequently reported by teachers in 63 schools are listed below, 
all except fruit growing being reported quite completely. 

Poultry Husbandry 

Number 
Author Title schools 

Lewis Productive poultry husbandry 54 

Lippincott Poultry production 5 

And four others 

Vegetable Gardening 

Watts Vegetable gardening 21 

Lloyd Productive vegetable gardening 17 

State Department of Agriculture Vegetable growing in New York 14 

And six others 

Farm Shop Work 

Roehl Agricultural woodwork 38 

Roehl Farm shop work 26 

Roehl Harness repairing 4 

And three others 

Farm Crops and Soils 

Montgomery Productive farm crops 43 

Wilson and Warburton Field crops 7 

Lyon Soils and fertilizers 16 

Weir Productive soils 7 

And ten others 

Animal Husbandry and Dairying 

Harper Animal husbandry for schools 28 

Eckles and Warren Dairy farming 17 

Washburn Productive dairying 10 

Van Slyke Modern methods of testing milk 6 

Plumb Types and breeds of farm animals 6 

Plumb Beginnings in animal husbandry 6 

Harper Manual of farm animals 5 

Wing Milk and its products 4 

And twelve others 

Fruit Growing 

Sears Productive orcharding 8 

And two others 

187 



Agricultural Engineering 

Number 
Author Title Schools 

Davidson Agricultural engineering 23 

Davidson and Chase Farm machines and farm motors 6 

And six others 

Farm Management 

Warren Farm management 51 

And one other 

On the whole, the evidence points to a rather systematic subject 
development of course, modified and adapted to a greater or less 
degree to meet the needs of communities and the project interests 
of boys. But as yet community needs do not dominate in the selec- 
tion of content, nor do project interests determine its organization. 
The trend is in that direction, but the norm of state policy is not 
yet the norm in teaching. 



HOMEMAKING 



CHAPTER X 
AIMS 

Official Statements 

THE first statement of aim from official sources discovered 
by the surveyor is found in a bulletin of May 1, 1913. The 
statement is ''such schools train young people ... for 
the household activities of life in the open country." While the 
earlier organization of homemaking in connection with agriculture 
prevailed (until 1919), such a definite statement indicates that the 
purpose was to serve farmer's daughters. As a matter of fact, in 
the publications put forth by the division from 1913 to 1919 with 
regard to the organization and conduct of schools of "agriculture, 
mechanic arts, and homemaking," discussion of homemaking is con- 
spicuously absent. Homemaking means "a woman teaching cook- 
ing, sewing, and perhaps some book work." 

In November of 1919, after the amendment to the law which has 
been cited was passed, the division published a bulletin on ''State- 
aided High School Departments of Homemaking," a genuinely 
helpful and reasonably comprehensive statement of the poHcy, 
plan, and requirements of the vocational course. In that bulletin 
the following statement of aim appears : 

"The purpose of the homemaking department is to offer to 
pupils of secondary school age a well-rounded course embodying 
the general principles of household organization and management 
with opportunity for laboratory practice. The course as planned 
will not only prepare the girl to manage her house, but will also lay 
a foundation for wage-earning occupations which have their origin 

189 



in homemaking activities." The latter part of the statement 
indicates a possible interest in guidance into such occupations as 
millinery, dressmaking, catering, dietetics work, nursing, institu- 
tional management, etc. The statement, barring the ornamental 
phase '^well-rounded," is clear and reasonably specific. 

In March, 1921, the specialist in homemaking of the Division of 
Vocational and Extension Education prepared the following state- 
ment of her conception of the aim of the homemaking course to the 
surveyor: 

1. To assist girls in performing their present home activities more 
intelligently and more efficiently. 

2. To increase their sense of responsibility for the welfare of the 
home. 

3. To raise the standards of the present home and of the future 
home. 

4. The aim is preparatory in so far as preparation is derived from 
the fundamental processes involved in the conduct of a majority of 
homes. 

Although the statement is very general, it tends to emphasize two 
important aspects of vocational teaching purpose that are often 
overlooked. The first is that the girl is not merely a prospective 
adult homemaker, but a present member of society and her home 
unit, whose activity as such is worthy of consideration in itself. 
The second, that efficient skill and knowledge must not be disso- 
ciated from responsibility and appreciation. To those points of 
view the surveyor most heartily subscribes. But the standards by 
which content is derived do not appear clearly in any statement 
presented. Some insight as to the probable standards may be 
derived from a further statement by the specialist. '' Homemaking 
courses," she said, "will be approved — (1) if the plan shows an 
appreciation of the scope of the subject, and (2) if it will stand 
examination in the light of the known community needs and condi- 
tions." 

Not much, of course, is to be derived from " the scope of the sub- 
ject," since the scope of the subject is very far from a matter of 
agreement as yet. But at least something of the scientific and social 
implications of homemaking activities must be developed. Evi- 

190 



dently from the second statement the community needs should 
largely determine what is taught, community opportunities be a 
factor in the methods of teaching. 

Statements of Teachers 

All the 46 teachers who replied to the questionnaire considered it 
their duty to prepare girls to be homemakers. Twenty-five also 
considered it a duty to prepare girls for college. 

Forty-four replied to the question, "What do you regard as the 
purpose of your teaching?" There was considerably less fogginess 
and divergence than in the case of teachers of agriculture. In 
every case the vocational objectives or definite preparation stood 
out as the major consideration. But particular aspects were 
emphasized variously. 

Skills 14 Systematic organization 3 

Knowledge 7 Growth in power 2 

Interest 6 Contribution to citizenship. . . 2 

Ideals 5 Preparation for advanced work 2 

Community service 5 Preparation for related voca- 
tions 2 

Managerial abiUty 4 Health benefits 2 

Appreciation 4 Individual happiness 2 

Immediate values 4 Social progress 1 

The majority regarded homemaking education as direct educa- 
tion variously useful in the several aspects of life; and not as gym- 
nastics for ''hand and brain," to accomplish at one stroke all the 
objectives of all education. In the matter of the philosophy of 
objectives the homemaking teachers demonstrate the effect of 
professional training to better advantage than do the teachers of 
agriculture. 



191 



CHAPTER XI 
SCHOOLS OF HOMEMAKING 

Distribution 

IN 1920-21 homemaking instruction under State aid, according 
to accessible records, was offered in 78 public day schools of 
secondary grade. Of those schools, 4 were under the intermedi- 
ate school organization, 74 under the vocational school organiza- 
tion. Of the latter 45 associate departments of homemaking with 
departments of agriculture, 29 are schools of homemaking only. 
Fifty-five schools are located in places of under 4,500 population, 
23 in larger centers. In the smaller places are the 4 intermediate 
schools, 38 vocational schools of agriculture and homemaking, 13 
schools of homemaking. In villages and cities employing a super- 
intendent are no intermediate schools, 7 schools of agriculture and 
homemaking, 16 schools of homemaking only. Or of the State- 
aided schools in homemaking 29.48 percent are in the larger places, 
as against 12 percent in the case of agricultural schools. 

Since the regulations of the Division of Vocational and Extension 
Education have made it possible (1919) to receive aid for home- 
making apart from agriculture, the tendency to extend aid to 
villages and cities for homemaking is marked. Previous to that 
change of regulation homemaking work was aided only in connec- 
tion with agriculture, and the distribution of schools for the two 
types of teaching was practically identical and quite clearly rural. 
In 1918-19, for example, the number of urban high schools aided 
was 7; of rural, 29; 1919-20 urban, 8; rural, 32; 1920-21 urban, 23; 
rural, 55. In the list of approved applicants for aid in 1921-22 the 
numbers are: urban, 31; rural, 74. Considering only the figures 
from 1918-19 to 1920-21, the percentage of increase in aided urban 

192 



schools is 228.57 percent, of aided rural schools, 89.65 percent. No 
account is taken of continuation and part-time work in homemak- 
ing, to which the State lends aid. Such work is confined wholly to 
urban communities. 

So far as the significance of homemaking education goes, there is 
no question but that the need for it is as great in the city as in the 
country — probably in certain aspects greater. But on the basis of 
relative ability to establish and maintain schools of homemaking 
the present system of allotting State aid, namely, to such as meet 
the requirements of the State, there appears inequity. 

The geographic distribution of homemaking schools is, of course, 
much less significant than in the case of agricultural schools. 
Homemaking instruction is a need of every community; agricul- 
tural instruction is not. But for the sake of comparison the distri- 
bution by counties and by sections of the State is shown as with 
agricultural schools. The effect of the earlier association of the 
two types on instruction in rural communities is fairly evident. 



Western Section of New York 



County 


Intermediate 
schools 


Schools of 
agriculture 

and 
homemaking 


Schools of 
homemaking 


Urban 
schools 


Total 


Chautauqua .... 
Cattaraugus .... 
Erie 



















5 
3 
4 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 






1 
1 

1 
1 

2 



1 







1 


2 
1 

1 
1 
2 





1 

1 
1 


6 

4 

7 


Wyoming 

Alleghany 

Livingston 

Genesee 

Steuben 

Monroe 

Cayuga 

Tompkins 

Seneca 


3 
2 
3 
2 
6 
1 
1 
3 
1 


Ontario 

Wayne 

Chemung 


1 
1 
1 







24 


7 


11 


42 



13 



193 



Northeastern Section of New York 



Jefferson 

Frankhn 

Saratoga 

Lewis 

Clinton 

Oswego 

St. Lawrence. 
Washington. . 





Southeastern Section of 


New York 






Chenango 

Sullivan 

Otsego 



1 
2 






1 








2 
3 
2 
1 




1 









1 

1 


1 

1 
1 
















1 




1 

2 
1 
2 
1 

1 


3 
4 

5 


Delaware 

Madison 

Ulster 

Suffolk 


1 
1 
2 
1 


Dutchess 

Columbia 

Broome 

Rensselaer 

Schenectady .... 

Orange 

Rockland 


1 
2 
2 
1 

2 
1 
1 




4 


9 


5 


9 


27 



Counties and sections are thus quite unequally represented. 
The western section again appears the most progressive in the 
development of the type of vocational education. But, in contrast 
with agriculture, work in homemaking of a practical sort, particu- 
larly in sewing, is to be found in a large number of high schools to 
which no State aid is granted. Even in the rural districts such 
courses outnumber by a small margin those which are aided by the 
State. Reference to the report on high schools will discover, how- 
ever, the very small minority of high schools in which any sort of 
instruction in homemaking is offered. The more detailed study is 

194 



confined to State-aided schools and mainly to those of the rural 
communities. 

Growth 

The history of State-aided schools of homemaking is based upon 
incomplete records for the past five years only. 



Schools in operation 



Northeastern section 

Southeastern section 

Western section 

Total 

Last year of aid 

Median enrolment all schools . . . 
Median enrolment rural schools . 
Median salary of teachers 



1920-21 


1919-20 


1918-19 


1917-18 


9 


5 


6 


4 


27 


11 


12 


13 


42 


24 


18 


14 


78 


40 


36 


31 





1 


1 


7 


19 


22 


21 


21 


19 


20 


18 


21 


$1,200 


$850 


$750 


$650 



1916-17 



7 

12 
11 



30 

2 

19 

19 

$650 



Duration of school under aid in the case of existing schools — 
one year, 36; two years, 8; three years, 11; four years, 4; five years 
or more, 19. In the case of defunct schools, one year, 7 ; two years, 4. 

A relatively rapid growth only in the past two years, since the 
removal of the requirement for association with agriculture, is 
notable. One hundred and five schools are Hsted for aid in 1921- 
22. Though the increase from 1916-17 to 1919-20 was but 33}4 
percent, the total increase to the present is more than 200 percent. 
A further increase in median enrolment for all schools is to be looked 
for with the addition to the list of urban schools. In the rural 
schools it remains relatively stable. The increase in salaries is 
steady, with a marked jump for the past year because of the greater 
number of teachers now ratable as "first vocational teachers," but 
the dollar rate of increase is less than with agricultural teachers, 
because of lower qualification standards and lack of Federal aid. 

The war hit the homemaking schools hard, but not so severely as 
the agricultural schools, because the demand for military service 
did not affect women in the same measure as men. Schools where 



195 



the work was dropped previous to 1919-20 correspond with those 
reported in agriculture. The abandonment of the agricultural 
course meant the loss of all aid for vocational work. Only one 
school has given up its aid under the new provision of 1919. Since 
homemaking is quite as appropriate to village girls as to farm girls, 
unwillingness to spend anything for the outsider has not been a 
factor in the decease of homemaking departments. Specific adap- 
tation of the course to local variations in needs is less a factor in 
success with homemaking than with agriculture. Thus the prin- 
cipal causes operative to the mortality of agricultural schools are 
of small effect in homemaking and the mortality is relatively small. 



196 



CHAPTER XII 
THE TEACHING OF HOMEMAKING 

Distribution of Lessons 

TEACHING of homemaking was observed in April and May 
of 1921 in 25 of the 55 schools organized in places of 
under 4,500 population. The number of teachers observed 
in action was 27, of whom 24 were the regularly employed voca- 
tional teachers, one a substitute, and two apprentice teachers 
enrolled in the teacher training department of the State College 
of Agriculture. The number of lessons observed was 55, of which 
4 were classroom lessons, 7 were classroom and laboratory lessons, 
and 44, or 80 percent, were purely laboratory lessons. 
The lessons classify as follows: 

Sewing and dressmaking laboratory lessons 28 

Dressmaking classroom and laboratory lessons 2 

Cookery laboratory lessons 13 

Cookery classroom and laboratory lessons 5 

Household decoration laboratory lessons 2 

Household decoration classroom lessons 2 

Household management laboratory lessons 1 

Household management classroom lessons 1 

Household physics classroom lessons 1 

Observers spent the full day at school and observed all teaching 
of homemaking during that time. Two facts are significant in the 
classification of lessons observed: (1) Of all lessons, 54.45 percent 
were in sewing, 38.33 percent in cookery, and 7.12 percent in the 
upper class studies of the course. That is, in so far as the observa- 
tion of so large a proportion of schools is representative of teaching 
conditions, more than nine-tenths of the work offered is in the first 
two years of the vocational program, and more than half of all the 
work is in sewing. (2) Of all lessons observed, 4 of 5 were purely 
laboratory lessons, in sewing 14 of 15 lessons purely laboratory, of 

197 



cookery lessons 7 in 10 were purely laboratory, in other subjects 3 
lessons in 7 were laboratory lessons. 

Dominance of Cooking and Sewing 
The rapid increase of schools — nearly 100 percent from 1919-20 
to 1920-21 — with proper habit of starting the school with only the 
subjects of the first two years, may in part account for the first 
condition noted. But that it is not a new condition is indicated by 
the figures for subject years offered during the four years preceding, 
wherein the rate of development of new schools was relatively 
slow. First-year work constituted 39.38 percent of all offerings; 
second year work, 35.91 percent; third-year work, 17.37 percent; 
fourth year work, 7.24 percent, or more than three-fourths of all 
teaching was offered in subjects of the first two years. 

Except for the prevalence of sewing and cooking equipment, 
there is no further evidence to offer for the prevalence of the second 
condition. It is recognized that the way to teach a girl to sew is to 
have her sew; to teach her to cook, to have her cook; further, that 
it is desirable to develop a good deal of the technology of sewing and 
cooking in a laboratory environment. All lessons recorded as 
"classroom and laboratory" were so conducted. In the purely 
laboratory lessons little attempt was made at developing any tech- 
nological insight or even factual knowledge. The evidence is 
quite clear that laboratory lessons in homemaking in general aim 
at a mechanic skill rather than at a skill guided and made meaning- 
ful by technology in a field where adaptiveness to a wide range of 
situations is needful. There is some evidence also that laboratory 
work as now conducted tends to subordinate even the acquirement 
of skill by the pupil to the finishing of a product. 

On that basis the generalization is offered that homemaking at 
present means for most of our girls in most of our schools mainly 
making garments out of cloth and pastries out of flour.^ With the 

^ Though the foregoing generalization in respect to the homemaking which is 
actually taught to our girls in the rural high schools appears to be abundantly 
justified, and indicates a state of afifairs far from ideal in a field of study ofifering 
large opportunities for developmental teaching, yet it is fair to note two con- 
siderations that may be in some measure palliative: 

(1) One of the aims of the work in homemaking put forward by the State 
supervisor and well founded in educational theory is that teaching should give 

198 



rich possibilities in scientific and social implication of dominant 
activities in the life of most women the condition seems unfortu- 
nate. Much of the ''making " practice, if unsystematized and uneco- 
nomical, the farm and village home can furnish. The controlling 
and enriching knowledge it cannot furnish; that the school should 
furnish in association with economical acquirement of skill. At 
present it is not doing so. 

Breaking of Development 
The condition were not so discouraging if the laboratory work of 
sewing and cooking made up but a part of a four-year course com- 
pleted by the girls — that is, if the present vocational program 
actually functioned. But we have to face the fact that 3 of every 5 
girls have left school by the end of the second year. And, second, 
there is evidence that the present course is serving as a course for 
relatively few of even those girls who persist in school for a longer 
period. That rather homemaking tends to be treated by prin- 
cipals as a group of subjects elective to girls of any grade who can 
spare the time from academic subjects for one or two of them. It is 
fair and reasonable that upper class girls who are soon to leave 
school shall be permitted to get what homemaking they can when a 

definite consideration to the present and immediate needs of the pupils taught. 
The reports of the girls themselves indicate that the preparation of foods and 
the making of garments are common home tasks in their present lives. Atten- 
tion, then, to cooking and sewing is appropriate. Connection is made thereby 
with the present home life of the girls. But the extraordinary emphasis given 
to those phases of homemaking and the failure to develop thought content that 
is appropriate to the problems of food preparation and garment making are not 
by the fact justified. 

(2) The report on teaching in other subjects of the high school program, 
wherein skills are not primary objectives, and wherein the development of 
thought content is professedly foremost, shows that there is normally far less 
connection with the present hfe needs and experiences than is the case with 
sewing and cooking. Further, the teaching is on a plane that cannot be regarded 
as superior in its developmental methods to that in the cooking and sewing. 
But because teachers of homemaking do no worse than many teachers of science, 
Enghsh, or history, leaves no reason for satisfaction in the state of afi'airs re- 
vealed. The point is made only that academic opponents of obviously useful 
studies may note that a chief weakness in the teaching of homemaking is exactly 
that which is characteristic of the teaching in long-established subjects of the 
rural high school program. The need for reorganization of content, for helpful 
supervision of teachers in service, and for professional preparation of teachers, 
is no less evident in the standard constants than in the vocational work in 
homemaking. 

199 



new course is offered. But that such is the sole factor accounting 
for the following attendance and enrolment facts is extremely 
doubtful: 



Grades in attendance 
on observed lessons 



Five and six 

Six only 

Seven only 

Eight only 

Eight and nine 

Eight, nine, and ten 

Nine only 

Nine and ten 

Nine, ten, and eleven 

Nine, ten, eleven and twelve 

Nine and eleven 

Nine and twelve 

Ten only 

Ten and eleven 

Ten, eleven and twelve. ... 

Ten and twelve 

Eleven only 

Eleven and twelve 



Number of lessons in the several subjects 



Total 



Sewing 



1 




1 


1 


2 


2 


1 


, . 


3 


2 


1 




5 


1 


8 


3 


4 


1 


7 


2 


2 




1 


1 


4 


2 


4 


2 


2 




1 




4 


1 


4 





Cooking 



Dress- 
making 



Other 



Enrolment by Grades in Homemaking from the Questionnaire Cards 
SENT IN BY Pupils from 50 Schools in Places of Under 4,500 Popu- 
lation 

Number pupils 
Grade reporting Percent 

IV 1 

V 

VI 7 

VII 11 

VIII 71 8.24 

IX 272 31.55 

X 247 28.65 

XI 160 18.56 

XII 100 11.60 

Graduates 2 

Specials 1 

From the first table it is evident that 30 of the 55 lessons enroll 
pupils from grades not belonging to them if the vocational sequence 
be pursued. Twenty of the 36 lower class lessons enroll upper 



200 



class pupils — a condition to be accounted for by the elective hypo- 
thesis suggested for new schools; but 10 of the 19 upper class lessons 
enroll pupils from the lower classes — a condition hardly to be 
explained as in accord with the vocational program, but clear 
enough under an elective scheme ignoring prerequisites. 

Schools Enrolling in Homemaking the Several Grades 

Grade Number schools Percent 

IV 1 1 

V 

VI 2 4 

VII 4 8 

VIII 20 40 

IX 50 100 

X 47 94 

XI 37 74 

XII 32 64 

Graduates 2 4 

Specials 1 2 

From the second table the only suggestions derivable are that the 
larger than normal proportion of upper class pupils enrolled is due 
either to a superior holding power in homemaking or to the presence 
of upper class pupils in lower class studies. The second is the only 
tenable explanation in view of the foregoing and following data. 

From the third table it is evident that a much larger proportion 
of schools is enrolling pupils in homemaking from the upper classes 
than is offering upper class work. Since even the figures for the 
four years preceding 1920 show less than 20 percent offering third 
year work and less than 10 percent offering fourth year work, the 
percentages of 74 enrolling juniors and 64 enrolling seniors indicate 
that the free election of homemaking subjects and not the course is 
common. 

Conversation with teachers and principals has served to give the 
impression which the data go to confirm. Administratively local 
authorities appear not to distinguish between the " non- vocational" 
and unaided homemaking studies and the '' vocational" or aided 
studies, except that the State helps pay for the latter but won't 
help with the former. That a four-year course on practically a 
half-time basis for the pupils is necessary is by no means certain, 
but a developmental program, such as appears to be contemplated 

20I 



by the division, is certainly desirable if more than one year of work 
is to be offered. If elective groupings are to be permitted apart 
from the completion of the course, as may be desirable in view of 
the high mortality in high school enrolment, then the course of 
study should be organized to meet such a condition. 

Aims of Lessons 

The objects of lessons were usually to be discovered at least in 
terms of a product to be made or a process to be worked through. 
In no case was the object stated by a pupil, but in 11 cases the 
teacher made a brief statement of objectives to the class. In 11 
cases the teacher told the observer what the purpose of the lesson 
was. In all other cases the observer judged of the aim for himself. 
In seven cases it was difficult to discover any aim. Individual 
pupils working on diverse articles of quite different sorts in continu- 
ation of work previously started made it impossible to formulate 
any lesson aim for the group. 

Observers report aims as follows: 

Sewing and dressmaking 

To make a garment 2 

Continuation of individual tasks 8 

To teach the class how to make a placket 1 

To teach class how to put in sleeves 1 

To teach how to choose a pattern for a wash dress 1 

To teach the importance of hygienic clothing 1 

It is noteworthy that the statements indicate consideration of the 
pupil first in only two cases in seven. That the judgment is not 
wholly unfair is indicated by the teaching procedure later reviewed. 

Cooking and other lessons 

To prepare and serve a meal 5 

To make cookies 4 

To make raised bread 

To make thickening for lemon filling 

To make frosting 

To teach the making of salads and dressing 

To teach preparation and use of gelatin 

To teach how to take an inventory 

To organize previously acquired experience 

To stain a table 

To clean the range and stove-pipe 

To clean the laboratory 

To "cover" the topics in the text 3 

202 



The attitude of the class was reported under four headings: 
Attentive — meaning eager interest; 

Orderly — attending to business in normally interested fashion; 
Indifferent — not interested but making no disturbance; 
Disorderly — inattentive and disturbingly active in ways not 
germane to the lesson. 





Attentive 


Orderly 


Indifferent 


Disorderly 


Classroom lessons 

Classroom and laboratory 
Laboratory lessons 




1 


2 

5 
37 


2 


5 



2 
1 


Total 


1 


44 


7 


3 







That is a somewhat better showing than is made in the report on 
instruction in academic subjects, but not so good as that made in 
agriculture. 



Portion of Class Kept Busy 





All 


Four-fifths 


One-half 


One-quarter 


Classroom lessons 

Classroom and laboratory 
Laboratory lessons 


1 

7 
41 





2 


1 


1 


2 




Total 


49 


2 


2 


2 







The showing made here is the best reported from high school 
teachers. That work was ready and promptly undertaken is con- 
firmed by further data. The nature of the individual tasks and 
projects makes it easy to keep all pupils busy in the laboratory work 
in homemaking. In the more difficult work of classroom instruc- 
tion teachers were not so successful. Further, there is evidence 
that being busy means in many cases being merely physically active, 

203 



with mental activity, relevant to the work at least, at a low ebb. 
Note the following report in that connection : 



Nature of Activity of Pupils 



Pupils active in 



Contribution 

Criticism 

Questioning 

Contribution and criticism 

Contribution and questioning. . . . 

Criticism and questioning 

Contribution, criticism and ques- 
tioning 

Not active in any of those forms . . . 



Classroom 
lessons 



Classroom 

and 
laboratory 



Laboratory 
lessons 






23 
1 
2 
1 

10 
19 



Total 



1 

26 
1 
4 
1 

1 
24 



In nearly half the cases the class was not active at all in ways 
indicating mental activity calling for guidance. In the form of 
greatest activity — questioning — the majority of questions were of 
the sort, "What shall I do now? How am I going to do this?" 
Thus the ''business" of pupils is not an index to a high educative 
value in the activity carried on. 

Arrangements and Promptness 

Observers were asked to report upon special provisions or defi- 
ciencies in economy of time or effort. The report summary follows : 

No special provisions or deficiencies 18 

Work assigned and materials ready 19 

Materials laid out and ready 12 

No plan or preparation at all 4 

Distracting objects placed in plain sight 1 

Teacher distributed unrelated examination papers 1 

Time Wasted Before a Start Was Made 

None wasted 46 

Four minutes or less 7 

Ten minutes 2 

The evidence is clear that homemaking teachers are generally 
ready to go to work with the start of the period. No class of teach- 
ers is their superior in that respect. 

204 



Assignments 

Assignment was made during class period or had already been 
made for the next lesson in 27 of the 55 cases; none was made in 24 
laboratory lessons, 2 classroom and laboratory lessons, and 2 class- 
room lessons. In the 15 cases where assignment was made in the 
presence of the observer it was given at the end of lesson 14 times, 
at the beginning once. Time given to assignment, one minute or 
less, 6 cases; three minutes, 1 case; five minutes, 8 cases. It was 
given orally 14 times and written on the blackboard once. Pupils 
made written record of the assignment in 5 cases. It was mere text 
reading in 5 cases; reference to several book sources in 1 case; refer- 
ence to persons, 2 cases; reference to objective data, 7 cases. Five 
times the assignment was a direct development from the work of 
the day. 

All assignments, whether given before the observer or not, were 
classified as follows : 

Group (the same for everybody) 16 cases 

Individual (divided responsibility) 11 cases 

Taking the form of a project or problem 15 cases 

Taking the form of a task to be done 12 cases 

In 4 cases no guidance at all was given; in 17 cases directions were 
given; in 6 cases suggestions as to procedure. 

There is conspicuous lack of assignment. But with the lessons 
in sewing, of course, there is ordinarily the tacit understanding that 
the incompleted work is to be taken up next time. So long as 
technology is neglected, no necessity for formal assignment arises, 
except when a new departure is contemplated. When teachers of 
homemaking do make an assignment, they evidently take as much 
pains as other teachers in the matter. 

Planning 
Teachers gave evidence, in the form of a written lesson plan or 
blackboard outline, of planning for the lessons observed in only one 
case in four; 10 times in laboratory lessons, and 4 times in laboratory 
and classroom lessons. Evidence of definite preparation in content 
instruction of the day was observed in 22 cases; 15 times in labora- 
tory; 6 times in classroom-laboratory; and once in classroom lessons. 

205 



The condition is not far from that normal to high school teaching, 
but is nevertheless by no means creditable. 

Preparation of Pupils 

The class, on the other hand, showed less preparation than the 
teacher. In only 17 cases was the lesson obviously prepared by the 
class — twice in recitation and 15 times in laboratory. In the latter 
case preparation was recorded when girls brought with them the 
materials they needed and went ahead with work largely on their 
own initiative. A common opinion appears to exist, though figures 
cannot be adduced in proof, among teachers of homemaking, that 
they are not expected to require preparation of lessons as other 
teachers do, for the reason that pupils work longer periods than in 
the academic studies. Two teachers told the surveyor that the law 
would not permit them to assign problems calling for outside prep- 
aration. Of course, there is no such provision in law or regulation. 
But if pupils are carrying heavy schedules in hours, as often they do 
under the system which makes vocational study "extra," there is no 
reason that part of the time should not be used for supervised study 
in preparation. In most schools, particularly with lower class 
pupils, guided study during a part of the regular periods would be 
of decided advantage. Agricultural teachers make a practice of it 
in cases. There is no record of a homemaking teacher conducting 
supervised study. 

System and Unity 

Definite system and unity in the lesson are noted by observers in 
14 cases; clear lack of it in 5. The undertaking of the making of a 
known product tends to give system to the pupils' procedure in 
itself, so that in the majority of cases observers made no report in 
the matter. In classroom procedure, however, system and unity 
are no more common with homemaking teachers than with others. 
Five only of the 1 1 lessons involving class recitation exhibited unity. 

Types of Lessons and Procedures 

In lessons involving recitation the types observed were text- 
reading 4; development 2; topic discussion 2; review 2. The num- 

2o6 



ber of lessons is too small for generalization, but so far as the indica- 
tions go, homemaking recitations are of much the same sort as 
found in the academic subjects. 

The frequency of various procedures in classroom work is as 
follows: 

Question and answer 9 

Telling by the teacher 4 

Note taking by pupils 4 

Blackboard work by pupils 6 

Relatively the use of the blackboard is more frequent than with 
agricultural teachers, note taking more conspicuous, and the resort 
to the lecture method less frequent. 

In classroom lessons concreteness is rather more evident than in 
the run of academic subjects, though less so than in agriculture. 
Clear objective illustration (as with a dress on a form) was given in 
two cases, and reference made to pupils' individual experience in 
homemaking in six. 

The teachers of homemaking in classroom work, like most other 
teachers, gave no encouragement to initiative on the part of pupils, 
but did give heed to evaluation of data in five cases and to organiza- 
tion in two. There is room for much improvement in those essen- 
tials. 

The laboratory project was the prevailing type in the laboratory 
lessons. In such the pupil engages in the motivated achievement 
of a material product, such as a dress or a cake, which is of some 
significance to her in the result. Many of these projects may, in 
their initiation, present specific problems to be solved by the pupil, 
but the actual problem involving reflective thinking or organized 
planning on the part of pupils was observed in only 12 cases. The 
exercise, or the mere going through of a routine process outlined by 
direction because it appears in a teacher's plan, syllabus, or manual, 
appeared in 7 cases. Without motive other than to fill the time, 
cover the ground, or avoid the displeasure of the teacher, the rou- 
tine is pursued. In laboratory work the exercise is on the dead 
level of the text rendering task of the classroom. Fortunately, it 
is less prevalent in vocational teaching than in the science teaching 
of the academic field. The practicum, for the acquirement of skill, 

207 



in which the pupil recognizes a deficiency and a use, appears twice. 
No field trip or observation lesson was found, though such appear 
important in the syllabus outHne to which most teachers profess 
adherence. In April and May it would appear that use of the out- 
side resources of the community should be at its maximum. For 
observation of marketing, study of dwellings and fixtures, if not of 
hospitals and factories, as recommended in the syllabus, many of 
the communities afford excellent opportunities. Even sewing and 
cooking studies might be profitably enriched by such means. The 
failure of teachers in respect to outside resources is disappointing. 

Group teaching was dominant in 17 cases; individual teaching in 
33. In group teaching demonstration by the teacher followed by 
practice of pupils was resorted to in only 3 cases ; demonstration to 
the individual followed by practice occurred in 3 cases also. That 
demonstration plays so small a part in teaching is somewhat sur- 
prising. The need for a pattern of guidance in the acquirement of 
skill is patent. Practice with directions given by the teacher was 
used for the groups in 2 cases, in individual teaching in 13 cases. 
Practice with suggestive rather than rote guidance appears 3 times 
in group lessons, 7 times in individual teaching. Direction and 
suggestion with practice occurred 10 times, and practice without 
any guidance whatever 9 times. 

In the foregoing summary appears a very conspicuous weakness 
of laboratory teaching in homemaking, namely, the use of directions, 
in which the responsibiUty and the mental activity are the teacher's, 
instead of suggestion wherein responsibility and some of the 
mental activity, at least, are the pupil's. A forewoman in a shop 
may get good hats or waists done most effectively, perhaps, by 
doing the planning herself, telling the work girls exactly what to do, 
step by step, and even performing the crucial operations herself. 
Too many teachers of homemaking take exactly that point of view. 
They get a good product of which they can be proud, that can be 
worn, exhibited, or eaten. But if the object be to teach girls, then 
thinking, planning, final choice of this or that move, must be theirs. 
There may be some waste of material and not so finished a product, 
but the girl becomes aware of the ''why of the how," or relatively 
adaptive to a range of like situations, rather than tied to a recipe or 

208 



a sheet of directions applicable to exactly the same objective situa- 
tion. The ability to make use of directions, such as are contained 
in a cook book, for example, to the achievement of her own ends, is 
certainly valuable to a woman, but that is a very different case from 
the one in hand. There will be no teachers in the home to stand by 
and direct activities step by step. The woman must direct her own 
activities if not those of children also. She is taught to direct her 
own activities by being called upon to direct them. With the fail- 
ure to develop technology and thought content, this habit of giving 
''step directions" and "making the turns" for pupils should be 
largely abolished in the interests of good teaching. 

In the achieved skill the dominant factors to efficiency are speed 
and accuracy. In the learning of a skill the pupil must, in the 
initial stages at least, be consciously aware of the process itself, and 
must organize the parts of the process into an unified system of 
procedure. Observers were asked to report on the evident consid- 
eration of those factors in laboratory teaching. The report follows: 

Number 
Attention given to — lessons 

Speed 3 

Accuracy 22 

Process analysis 2 

Speed and accuracy 7 

Speed and organization 2 

Speed, accuracy, and organization 2 

Accuracy and process analysis 1 

No attention to any of the factors 12 

It is evident that the teaching of skills is not very well organized. 
The dominance of accuracy as a recognized factor is in part due to 
tradition in schools of a "faculty of accuracy" that can be devel- 
oped by any sort of exercise, but is equally to be explained by over- 
emphasis on the importance of the material product. It is neces- 
sary to be accurate to turn out a good product whether or not you 
make speed, analyze the process, or consciously organize its parts 
into appropriate relationship with one another. 

Ratings 

The tabulated records for each lesson and the descriptive reports 
were assembled for the respective teachers, read and discussed by 

14 209 



the surveyor of academic teachers, the surveyor of vocational 
teaching, and the professor in charge of teacher training in home- 
making at the State College of Agriculture. On that basis the 
schools were rated unanimously as shown below: 

Number 
As having — schools Percent 

Very high grade teaching 

Superior teaching 3 12 

Normally good teaching 16 64 

Inferior teaching 3 12 

Very low grade teaching 3 12 

In so far as the judgment is sound and the observation represen- 
tative (it is the largest proportion of teaching observed for any 
type within the survey), it appears that the curve for homemaking 
teaching skews somewhat to the lower side of the norm for all teach- 
ing observed, and very considerably below that demonstrated in 
agriculture. 

Impressions of Teachers 

Observers reported upon the dress and appearance, the voice, and 
manner of teachers. 



Appearance and dress 

Pleasing, neatly and appropriately dressed 17 

Pleasing, neatly but not appropriately dressed 3 

Unattractive, but neatly and appropriately dressed 2 

Unattractive and untidy 1 

Noticeably youthful 3 

Noticeably aging 1 

Voice 

Pleasant and audible 12 

Harsh and loud 3 

Clear and carrying 5 

Weak 5 

Manner 

Quiet and slow- 1 

Quick and alert 2 

Firm and competent 7 

Nervous and timid 4 

Unduly intimate 1 

Distant 2 

Domineering 1 

Kindly and sympathetic 9 

2IO 



Not very much is to be deduced from the report. Most of the 
deficiencies are handicaps that can be overcome by persistent 
endeavor on the part of the teacher. 

Evident knowledge of the subject shown by teachers: 

Remarkable 2 

Ver>' good 2 

Good. 17 

Insufficient 6 

That two teachers in nine lack sufficient knowledge of the subject 
they are teaching is not, of course, creditable. The showing is 
much less favorable than with teachers of agriculture. No basis 
is given in the survey for comparison with other teachers. 

Observers' judgment of teachers' vocational competency, or 
ability to do the things they are trying to teach. 

Very good 3 Good 20 Uncertain 4 

Observers' judgment of teachers' professional attitude or spirit: 
Good 10 Mediocre 8 Lacking 9 

Teachers had, apparently, a strong and good influence upon 
pupils in 5 cases, a satisfactory influence in 15 cases, and a weak or 
unfortunate influence in 7. 

The attitude of pupils toward the teacher was normal in 21 cases; 
they admired and loved her to an exceptional degree in 3, and appar- 
ently disliked or feared her in 3 cases. 

So far as such opinions go to prove anything it is that homemak- 
ing teachers are not a selected group in terms of personality. They 
vary in the human attributes just about as other women teachers 
do. That we should get women into the teaching of homemaking 
who are uniformly ''strong, mature, and motherly" at a salary of 
$1200 is hardly to be expected. 

Observers were able to converse with the principal in 23 schools 
and to gain some idea of his attitude toward the vocational course 
and the teacher of homemaking. The judgment found in fifteen 
minutes or an hour's talk with a principal cannot be taken as final. 

211 



Actions speak louder than words. The poorest backer may be the 
loudest in praise and vice versa, but in the main the judgment is 
probably worth recording. 

Apparent attitude of principal: 

Toward vocational course Toward vocational teacher 

Enthusiastic 7 Enthusiastic 9 

Favorable 11 Favorable 7 

Indifferent 3 Indifferent 3 

Unfavorable 2 Unfavorable 4 

Other evidence of the intelligent activity of teachers and the 
calibre of their teaching is to be had from the replies to a question- 
naire returned by 46 of the 55 teachers to whom the form was sent. 

Teaching of Skills 
A list of skills in homemaking was suggested and teachers asked 
to check those they taught and those they tested. Twenty-one 
teachers hsted additional skills. In order of frequency the first 15 
skills are given : 

Skill Taught Tested 

Preparing meals 46 42 

Serving meals 45 41 

Using sewing machines 44 38 

Using commercial patterns 44 38 

Repairing clothing 43 37 

Canning fruit 40 35 

Canning vegetables 39 34 

Baking bread 38 31 

Using sewing machine attachments 33 26 

Removing spots and stains 32 20 

Putting up school lunch 31 20 

Preparing invalid's tray 28 21 

Laundering muslin 26 16 

Repair of linen, curtains, etc 25 18 

Laundering silk 22 11 

Thirty teachers stated that the same skills were required for all 
girls, 1 that they were not. Of the 16 who gave reasons for differ- 
entiation, the replies classify as follows: 

According to differences in capacity of pupils 5 

According to differences in acquirements of pupils 4 

According to differences in home opportunity for learning 7 

212 



The reasons are sound and intelligently chosen, though with high 
school pupils and such skills as are listed above the first is probably 
less significant than the others. One teacher in three is discrimi- 
nating enough to differentiate in terms of the pupil. 

Thirty-four teachers repHed to the question, ''By what means do 
you determine the degree of skill that is required in any given case?" 
Only ten interpret the question correctly. Of them six attempt to 
arrive at a standard by observation of the proficiency of successful 
homekeepers, three use their own proficiency as the standard, and 
one is content to achieve whatever proficiency is possible in the 
time at her disposal. There is need for study of the proficiency 
standards in common household skills and formulation of means of 
test, if teachers are to make the best use of time. 

Methods by which proficiency is tested are mentioned with the 
following frequencies : 

Definite practical assignments 9 

The home project 3 

Rating by product, speed, and accuracy 4 

Scoring of the product 7 

Written test 2 

The elements contained in the first four measures, if combined, 
should give a proper test. The fifth is absurd, except ability in 
handwriting or written English is to be measured. Emphasis on 
the product again is evident. 

To the question, "Do you teach all the skills required in home- 
making," forty-four teachers replied — 15 in the affirmative, 29 in 
the negative. A majority, then, have given thought to the matter. 
Their reasons for selecting such skills as they do teach show con- 
siderable insight. 

I teach such skills as are: 

Suited to the needs and abilities of the particular group of girls 

in the community served by the school 18 

Most likely to be of use in later Hfe 2 

Not more economically learned outside of school 1 

Most representative and typical 1 

Within the limitations of teaching environment 10 

Appropriate to the study in hand 5 

Improved by drill at school 3 

213 



Suggestions of teachers with regard to the selection, testing, and 
teaching of skills: 

Selection 

Select skills most frequently usable in the future 5 

Select skills most frequently usable now 2 

Select according to community needs 13 

Select according to pupils' needs 12 

Select the most typical skills 1 

Select those in which pupils show lack of proficiency 2 

Select according to age and capacity of pupils 1 

Select those you can teach most effectively with the time and 

equipment you have 2 

Select those of particular interest to pupils 1 

Let the division provide a suggestive list of skills and 

methods of testing 1 

Selection should be entirely in hands of teacher 1 

Testing 

Test through practical problems under home conditions 3 

Test according to definite standards 2 

Test each skill separately 1 

Give attention to improvement as well as achievement 2 

Make a score card for kitchen technique 1 

Teaching 

Provide motive for practice 1 

Emphasize drill 3 

Teach the more essential skills first 1 

Teach under home conditions 3 

Teach at most opportune time 1 

Make teaching an individual matter 1 

Waste no time on minor details 1 

Use more and better equipment 1 

Use skilful pupils as assistants 1 

Most of these suggestions are well worth study. There is no 
necessary conflict between the last two under selection, and the 
second in the list is specially worth noting. Under teaching, the 
last three deserve some criticism. Waste of time on unessentials 
is certainly undesirable, but let the teacher consider that what 
appears to the practised adult as a minor detail in a process may, 
nevertheless, be an essential detail worthy of emphasis to a right 
organization of the process in learning. For example, the process 
of measurement in cooking ingredients may serve. A teacher may 
need more and better equipment than she has, but she must use 
such as she has for teaching purposes. The skilful pupil is, by the 
statement, not in need of practice to any great extent. The educa- 
tional value of repetition is decidedly lessened for her. To use her, 

214 



then, for assisting in the teaching of others is to deny her time for 
learning what she needs to know, and savors of exploitation. It is 
not the work of the homemaking department to train teachers of 
homemaking. If a girl has determined upon such a career, of 
course, a justification of her use as assistant is to be found. 

Provisions for Teaching Skills 

The suggestive syllabus which all but eight of the 46 teachers 
follow with but minor modifications provides for instruction in 
house furnishing and decoration, home nursing, household manage- 
ment, community health, and sanitation. Now, in all these studies 
is involved something more than technology and the experience 
necessary to give that useful meaning. There are skills which call 
for actual practice. Teachers were asked, "How do you provide 
for actual skill acquirement? " in the several studies. 

Household furnishing and decoration 

Not yet given 14 

No provision whatever 4 

Practice house 4 

Home projects 13 

Sharing teachers ' house 1 

Decorating the school room 5 

Decorating and furnishing cardboard house 5 

Making drawings, paper cutting, booklet 17 

Making plans for fictitious home improvements 5 

Visiting shops and studying materials 1 

Choosing a site for a home 1 

Making articles for ornament 1 

There is here, perhaps, some testimony to the ingenuity of 
teachers, but the poverty of genuine homemaking experience is 
plain. The problem is a difficult one. A practice house is desirable 
for other purposes, but does not solve the problem here except for 
the class enrolled in the subject at the inauguration of the practice 
house. Neither it nor a teachers' house, nor the less typical school- 
room, can be furnished and decorated every two years. The home 
project is more hopeful as setting individual problems of room 
furnishing and decoration for the girls. The decoration of a girl's 
own room, for example, can often be easily arranged. But the 
furnishing is another matter for most families. Parent-teachers' 

215 



associations, organizations of women of the community, may be 
helpful in bringing girls to a share at least in the furnishing and 
decoration of rooms and houses. The teacher must be alert and 
resourceful if girls are to learn from genuine participation. 

Home nursing 

Not yet given 21 

No provision at all 4 

Care of children and patients at home 9 

"Make beheve" practice at school 14 

Treatment of minor injuries at school 1 

Visit to hospital 1 

Talks and demonstrations by school nurse 2 

The last two are, of course, useful, but they do not provide 
actual practice for pupils. The care of children will often be pos- 
sible at home or through employment, but the home project will not 
provide regularly for the care of the sick. With a sick-bed and 
first-aid outfits it is probable that the dramatic rehearsal at school 
or in the practice house or Red Cross rooms offers the best means to 
practise in most cases. So much at least should be provided in all 
schools. Further it is safe to say that the work should come so 
early in the course that all girls may have a chance. 

Household management 

Not yet given 21 

No provision at all 2 

Rotation in management of practice house 3 

Assumption for a period of management at home 14 

Keeping the accounts at home 7 

Buying supplies at home 2 

Rotation in charge of department at school 3 

Class projects in planning, preparing, and serving school ban- 
quets 1 

Laboratory practice (not specified) 2 

Drawing and recitation work 1 

In household management the practice house is particularly valu- 
able, though undoubtedly a certain number of girls, allowed by 
parents to take over the management of the home for a week or a 
month or more at intervals, may gain more valuable experience at 
home. But in many cases the only way to secure such a condition 
is to persuade ''mother" to go on a visit and get a rest. The last 
three provisions are poor makeshifts, the final being unworthy of 
the name of ''practice" in household management. 

2l6 



Community health and sanitation 

Not yet given 21 

No provision at all 14 

Local field studies 5 

Through health club 1 

Taking care of school property 1 

Home project 2 

Care of foods and utensils in cookery 3 

The notable fact here is that so important a matter finds any 
place at all in only one school in four. It is probably true that such 
practical skills as are needful can be taught, and should be taught, 
in connection with the activities of cooking, sewing, management, 
etc. With so small a use of outside resources, of course, it is doubt- 
ful that the technology can be effectively taught, but the reference 
here is to skills. 

Departures from Syllabus 

The reasons given for change in the course from the syllabus 

plan fall under three heads: 

Owing to community conditions 11 

e. g., omitted trips to stores, markets, restaurants, bakeries, 
factories, etc., because none were accessible. Cut out fancy 
foods and fancy dresses as inappropriate. 

Owing to school conditions 12 

e. g., lack of equipment, too great expense for materials, lack 
of time because of other duties, such as running the school cafe- 
teria, etc. 

Owing to differences in pupils 11 

e. g., girls already know some of the syllabus content, girls lack 
sufficient preliminary training to undertake some of the work, etc. 

Those changes refer to emendations or amendments to the teach- 
ing content. Five teachers report a change in the sequence of 
subjects. 

Teaching of Technology 

In study of technology one teacher uses text only, 17 use refer- 
ence only, the rest use both text and reference. Slavish dependence 
on the text is thus not evident among homemaking teachers. 

As in the case of agricultural teachers, there were submitted four 
topics in technology. These were budget making, house planning, 
invalid diet, sewage disposal. Homemaking teachers (40) sub- 
mitted examples of the details studied under those heads. The 
range of subheadings ran from 2 to 22, with a median at 7. In the 

217 



same way as previously explained a judgment was made of teaching 
attitude revealed, i. e., practical, academic, scientific. The sum- 
mary follows : 



Budget making. 
House planning 
Invalid diet. . . . 
Sewage disposal 



Treatment aspect 



Practical 



14 



Academic 



21 



Scientific 



No great weight is to be given a judgment of the sort. So far as 
it gives indication of the kind of teaching being done it shows a bit 
less of the academic treatment than with agricultural teachers, per- 
haps, because the studies are less standardized. But it is to be re- 
membered that the agricultural teachers give superior evidence of 
a tendency to concrete reference to pupils' experience. 

One hundred and forty-two examples of assignment were offered. 
Classified, they appear as follows : 

Text readings 54 

Readings in single sources other than text 81 

Readings in two sources other than text 5 

Readings in three sources other than text 1 

Readings in four sources other than text 1 

The tendency to the use of outside sources is evident if the range 
appears small. The tendency may be expected to vary with the 
subject, but probably not greatly if the topics classified below be 
considered. 

Classification of 135 topics cited for assignment by 46 teachers. 

Number 

topics Percent 

Foods and cookery 71 52.59 

Textiles and clothing 27 20.00 

Household management 19 14.07 

House planning and decoration 12 8.89 

Home nursing and child care 6 4.44 

2l8 



Two further indications are found in the Hsting of unsuggested 
topics: (1) Again, that the lower class studies predominate in teach- 
ing; (2) that much more is being made of the technology of cookery 
than of that of clothing. At present the technology of cookery is 
certainly richer than that in clothing, on the scientific side particu- 
larly, and it may be that for vocational purposes it is more signifi- 
cant. There is no indication in the survey that it is overdone. 
But it does appear that, on the side of clothing, there is a good deal 
of neglect of technology. 

As indicative of a possibly greater use of outside resources than 
was found in the observation of teaching, a summary of the replies 
of teachers to the question, ''Do you make assignments to sources 
other than reading matter? " is given below: 

Number giving such assignments 34 

Number not giving such assignments 12 

Sources used 

Stores and markets 30 

Textile factories 6 

Unspecified observation trips 7 

Mothers and experienced women 4 

Home bureau workers 3 

Chautauqua 1 

Project work 3 

Contractors and builders 1 

DweUing houses 3 

Hospitals 1 

Dairies 4 

Charts, pictures 5 

Testing for Technology 
"How do you determine that a pupil knows what you have tried 
to teach her of technology?" RepUes by 44 teachers in order of 
frequencies : 

Examinations and quizzes 24 

Written reviews 20 

Oral work and recitations 14 

Practical problems of application 14 

Observation of project work 11 

Conduct of contests 1 

The comment made upon the same topic under agricultural teach- 
ing is applicable here and need not be repeated. That nearly one- 

219 



third of the cases indicate recognition of test in the sort of asso- 
ciation in which the technical knowledge is to be used is encouraging. 

Experience in Buying 
Experience in buying of some sort is reported for pupils by 41 
teachers, 8 of whom state that it is very little. In order of frequency 
the types of experience follow : 

Buying supplies for the class 17 

Buying goods for sewing 14 

Buying foods for serving meals 8 

Buying lunch- room supplies . . . ; 8 

Buying supplies for home projects 7 

Apparently the home project is much less a dependence here than 
in agriculture. No question was put with regard to selling, since 
ordinarily that is not a type of abiHty required in homemaking, but 
managing and directing others may frequently be so. 

Directing Others 
Thirty-three teachers report some experience for their pupils in 
managing, thirteen report none. 

As hostess 4 

In charge of laboratory group 6 

Directing preparation of school lunch 15 

In charge of practice house 2 

Directing committee work 3 

Assisting teacher 2 

In the absence of any large provision for home management it 
would seem that such duties as these should be made frequent and 
responsible. 

Employment 

Practical experience may also be obtained through employment 
in homemaking work. Twenty-six teachers report employment by 
pupils — not all of it, however, in homemaking. That in homemak- 
ing or related work reported is as follows: 

Hired housekeeper 7 

Hotel employee 2 

Dressmaker 2 

Nurse (children) 1 

Employee in cannery 3 

220 



Of 882 girls replying to a questionnaire from 50 schools, 505, or 
57.25 percent, reported work as employees. Of them 257, or approx- 
imately 50 percent, had been employed in homemaking or related 
occupations as follows : 

Housework 131 

Care of children 48 

Waitress 44 

Sewing 26 

Laundry work 6 

Canning 2 

Of work in homemaking without pay and apart from instruction 
852, or 96.6 percent, made report. 
The types of work in order of frequency follow: 

General housework 393 

House cleaning 326 

Washing dishes 290 

Cooking 216 

Sewing 183 

Serving meals 166 

Baking 92 

Making beds 90 

Laundry work 72 

Care of own room 69 

Care of children 10 

Care of own wardrobe 5 

Managing the home 5 

Although the categories are not very specific, they certainly 
reveal a rich fund of experience upon which to draw in the teaching 
of technology, and make the uniform and indiscriminate teaching 
of skills clearly a misfit. It is astonishing that so few report the 
care of children, but the absence of managerial and executive ex- 
perience is to be expected. Without details, such a report seems 
to give backing to the already implied belief that the emphasis upon 
the practical as against the technological in sewing and cooking is 
exactly inverse to the real needs of the situation, and that the least 
emphasis is given to those subjects in homemaking which are most 
appropriate to the school as complementary to the home. The 
managerial, executive, economic, social, sanitary, scientific, esthetic 
and maternal aspects need an emphasis which they do not now 
receive. For country girls the routine of housework is acquired 

221 



largely at home. All that the school can profitably do is to connect 
.the conduct of such routine with intelligent understanding and 
appreciation. Observed bad and wasteful habits may, in some 
measure, be redirected by school practice and careful supervision. 
A rearrangement and reselection of the content and method of the 
course appear desirable. What the mother cannot or does not 
teach her daughter as a by-product of participation in the home 
economy should be determined by careful vocational research in 
homemaking. Then the course in homemaking at school can be 
made more profitable to the girl and to the community. 

Cooperation 

To return to the questionnaire. How far experience in vocational 
cooperation is necessary to success in homemaking the surveyor is 
unable to state. Certainly it does not have quite the significance 
that it has in the vocations of farming. But teachers were asked to 
report upon the experience of girls in working together. Tw^enty- 
four reported some experience, 22 none. The forms reported were: 
Preparing and serving meals to large groups 17, group work in class 
6, cooperative home projects 3, preparing and putting on exhibit at 
State fair 2. Certainly for community work among women in 
which homemaking knowledge and skill are involved, such, even the 
last, may be regarded as educational preparation. In the manage- 
ment of a household they would function to a less degree. 

Exemptions 

The physical and moral risks in teaching homemaking are small, 
so that such doubtful cases as occur in agriculture must be rare. 
Yet girls are even more likely, according to the statements of 
teachers, to be exempted than are boys in the agricultural course. 
Thirty-two of 46 teachers state that they have exempted or would 
exempt girls from certain work for various reasons. 

Reasons for exemption 

Inequality of home opportunity 15 

Girls sufficiently trained already in certain respects 5 

Some girls more capable than others 5 

Physical inability 2 

222 



Examples of exemptions granted 

Girls boarding away from home excused from projects 5 

Girls earning their own living excused from projects 5 

Extra work done at school set off against project 3 

Girl not enrolled for credit excused from project 1 

Girl excused from project because of parents' objection. ... 2 

Girl working in model kitchen excused from rearranging it . . 1 
Girl who had two years' experience in canning allowed to 

substitute extra baking 1 

Girls in ill health excused from heavier work 2 

Skilled darners not required to darn 3 

Girls specially interested in cooking allowed to do extra 

cooking 3 

The exemptions reported for project work, which are most fre- 
quent, appear to be unsound if the experience is needed. Nothing 
is said of alternative or substitute practice, which might serve the 
purpose of the project, in part at least, and meet the State require- 
ments. There is no good reason why girls specially interested 
should not do extra work if it be not done at the expense of learning 
in some other field. 

Those sufficiently qualified to be exempted from certain require- 
ments of the course should use their time to gain other knowledge 
and skill. Nothing is said of substitutions by teachers. It appears 
that the judgment of homemaking teachers is not as well founded as 
it should be. The reasons given for exemption are intelligently 
chosen, but the examples are not satisfying. 

Reasons for non-exemption 

All girls need certain fundamentals of home work 6 

There is always room for improvement 4 

All must meet the same requirements if State aid is to be 
granted to the school 2 

Examples of non-exemption 

Every girl made to bake bread a certain number of times, no 

matter what her skill 1 

Every girl made to practise the washing of dishes, because 

every one can improve 1 

Lack of home opportunity not accepted as an excuse, because 

extra work can be provided at school 1 

There is a poverty of examples. But with the exception of the 
last example, neither examples nor reasons will bear examination. 
They reveal foggy thinking or misunderstanding. Even accepting 
as true the first statement as enunciating a sound principle, it is 
valueless as an argument for uniform requirements. 

223 



Study of Community 

A knowledge of community requirements is, perhaps, somewhat 
less exigent in the case of homemaking than in that of agriculture. 
But it is a matter of prime importance, nevertheless, and particu- 
larly is knowledge of teaching resources requisite to good teaching. 
Since 40 of the 58 homemaking teachers in the rural high schools are 
in their first year of service in the particular community, and 34 of 
them have never lived in the community previously, they would 
appear to be particularly deficient in knowledge highly useful to 
them. It appears also, as has been noted, that only a small frac- 
tion have a functioning advisory board. But 24, or more than half 
of those reporting, have undertaken some study of the homes and 
the community. Only 12 report the method of study, and in their 
reports is little indication of system. With a heavy schedule and 
new duties in many cases excuse, of course, is to be found, but the 
deficiency is none the less real. Some provision for survey, such as 
has been made by the division for teachers of agriculture, should be 
undertaken. Three teachers have made observation incidental 
to their project supervision only, two have visited farm homes, 
two report that it is a small town and they are well acquainted. 
One each reports the following activities as giving knowledge of 
community needs : 

Work in the home bureau. 

Visits to people not interested in sending their daughters to college. 

Visits to well-to-do families. 

Social calls on neighbors. 

And one reports merely that she has found evidence that houses are 
badly planned, presumably from indoor visits. 

Yet 32 report that their knowledge of the community has led to 
greater or less modification of the content and method of their 
teaching. 

Suggestions for Modification 

Twenty-two teachers give opinions as to need for modifica- 
tion in the present organization and difficulties found in working 
under it. 

224 



Needs for Change in Organization of the Course 

Less home project work 3 

Simpler clothing requirements 2 

More room for work 3 

Better equipment 2 

A school lunch room 2 

More useful kinds of sewing 1 

Regents credits on one-half year basis 1 

An advisory board of women 1 

A liberal and sympathetic Board of Education 1 

Obviously, only two of the suggestions would require any change 
in organization, and it is doubtful that either is consonant with a 
sound vocational program. 

Difficulties 

There are no orphans to sew for (vide syllabus) 1 

Factories are not accessible {vide syllabus) 2 

Cooperation with local hospital difficult to secure 1 

Pupils live too far away for supervision 4 

The last suggests the need of provision for transportation and 
employment for a period that would allow of consistent follow-up. 
The plan of employment for a year, as in the case of agricultural 
teachers, would undoubtedly go far to give close touch with the 
community and make project teaching effective. The teachers' 
opinion was sought through the question, ''Would your teaching 
opportunities be markedly improved by employment for summer 
supervision of projects?" Twenty-five say yes, 9 are dubious, 10 
say no, and 2 do not answer. 



IS 225 



CHAPTER XIII 
TEACHERS OF HOMEMAKING 

ONLY three of the schools in places of under 4,500 popula- 
tion employed two teachers of homemaking. In the larger 
places two and even three teachers are frequently employed. 
There were 97 teachers employed in the schools for 1920-21. With 
regard to those teachers, the division of vocational and extension 
education has furnished the following "approximate data." 

Schooling 

Number completing four-year course in Home Economics. ... 37 

Number completing two years or more but not four years .... 54 

No record of training 6 

Graduates 

New York State College of Agriculture 15 

Syracuse University 1 

Albany State Teachers College 17 

School of Practical Arts, Columbia University 4 

Simmons College 1 

Elmira College 2 

Pratt Institute, N. Y. C 2 

Rochester Mechanics Institute 13 

Stout Institute 1 

State School at Canton (St. Lawrence University) 7 

State School at Alfred (Alfred University) 4 

Skidmore School of Arts 4 

Drexel Institute 2 

Buffalo Normal School 4 

Cortland Normal School 1 

State normal schools in other States 2 

Having some training beyond high school 10 

No training beyond high school 1 

Of teachers of record, then, approximately 44 percent are college 
graduates. The records of 50 teachers in the smaller schools show 
that 60 percent are college graduates, and that of the other 40 per- 
cent, none has less than two years of training above the high school. 
Though the teachers of homemaking in rural schools stand rela- 
tively high in that respect as compared with urban teachers of 
homemaking, perhaps because they are nearly all of them first 
teachers in the department, yet they are slightly below the norm 
for all high school teachers in the rural districts — 62.5 percent — 
and very much below the teachers of agriculture. 

226 



Teaching Experience 

Records of 42 teachers in the rural communities, compiled from 
supervisors' visiting memoranda, show that in teaching experience 
the homemaking teachers are again below the norm, the median 
year of experience being the second. Thirteen are in the first year 
of teaching, 14 in second year, 6 in third year, 3 in fourth year, 4 in 
fifth year, 1 in eighth year, and 1 in the fourteenth year. 

Professional Studies 
In regard to professional preparation for the job of teaching 46 
teachers in the rural districts made reply as follows : 



Number reporting preparation in — Number Percent 

Educational psychology 41 89.13 

Principles of teaching 40 86.95 

Teaching of homemaking 38 82.61 

Practice teaching 9 19.56 

Practically 9 out of 10 of those reporting have some professional 
training, 8 out of 10 have a good basic training on the professional 
side. 

Technical Studies 

On the technical side the same teachers were asked to indicate 
special preparation in various subjects related to the technology of 
the course indicated in the syllabus. 

Preparation in Technical Subjects 

Special 
Subject College study experience 

Homemaking 28 15 

MiUinery 24 7 

Dressmaking 34 11 

Institutional management 9 7 

Catering 3 3 

Dietetics 21 4 

Care of children 11 8 

Laundering 18 7 

Other (including) 

Housekeeping 2 1 

Cookery 3 1 

First aid 2 

Household physics 1 

Home decoration 2 

Embroidery 1 

Settlement work 1 

227 



In terms of percentages without duplication of forms of training 
the following are the results of inquiry into technical training of a 
special nature. 

Homemaking 88 . 40 percent 

Millinery 58 . 14 percent 

Dressmaking 83 . 72 percent 

Institutional management 37 . 28 percent 

Catering 13 .95 percent 

Dietetics 53 . 50 percent 

Care of children 41.86 percent 

Laundering 53 . 50 percent 

An indication of the degree of specialization inferred in the ques- 
tion by teachers may be given by the frequency of various ranges of 
subject specialization reported. 

Number 
Special preparation Teachers 

In one subject 5 

In two subjects 4 

In three subjects 6 

In four subjects 5 

In five subjects 8 

In six subjects 8 

In seven subjects 2 

In eight subjects 4 

In nine subjects 1 

Deficiencies in technical training appear not to be largely signifi- 
cant for the secondary school course, except in the cases of care of 
children and laundering, both of which enter into the present plan. 
Since the subject standardization is less as yet in training courses in 
homemaking than in agriculture, and since the surveyor is much 
less familiar with the content than with that of agricultural subjects, 
no further criticism is offered. Evidently "homemaking" as a 
subject in college is less inclusive than "homemaking" as a course 
in the secondary school. Since 9 of 10 teachers profess special 
quaUfications in a subject inclusive of most of the work of the first 
two years of the vocational course, technical deficiencies affecting a 
large number of pupils do not loom large, as was the case with shop 
work in agriculture. 



228 



Studies in Science 
In the sciences preparation is much like that of agricultural 
teachers, except that in sociology and physiology there is a better 
showing, in economics a worse. 

Subject College study Secondary school 

Economics 31 5 

Sociology 22 2 

Chemistry 43 14 

Physics 34 31 

Botany 21 27 

Zoology 21 18 

Physiology 38 31 

It thus appears that though teachers of homemaking rate in 
length and breadth of preparatory training as indicated by college 
graduation somewhat below the norm of country high school teach- 
ers, yet in definitely appropriate preparation for the job they have 
to do they compare favorably with the agricultural teachers. The 
number and proportion represented in the questionnaire is less than 
with agricultural teachers, and the evidence of college preparation 
somewhat higher than is indicated by the record of the whole 
group, but the generalization is reasonably well founded. 

Reported Deficiencies 

So far as the deficiencies and merits of their training go, the 
reports of teachers themselves are of interest. Twenty-two teach- 
ers find no deficiency worth noting in their qualifications, 24 report 
deficiencies in technical and professional training, with the follow- 
ing frequencies : 

Technical DEFiciENaES 

Lack of practical experience 10 

Lack of skill in doing 3 

Lack of skill in sewing 3 

Lack of skill in millinery 1 

Lack of knowledge of dietetics 1 

Lack of knowlege of home nursing 1 

Lack of knowledge of catering 2 

It is noteworthy that lack of technical skill is reported four times 
as frequently as lack of technical knowledge. The charge that 
college courses too largely neglect the practical skills receives some 
support here. On the other hand, the emphasis is at present much 

229 



too heavily the other way in the case of the high school course. 
Teachers are called upon to use the technical skill that they have, 
but are making relatively small use of their technical knowledge. 
There is no indication, however, that they possess more technical 
knowledge than is necessary to effective teaching. 

Professional Deficiencies 
Lack of knowledge of the requirements of laboratory and 

project teaching of the vocational type 7 

Insufficient understanding of the theory of teaching 1 

Lack of training in the economical use of time 1 

Lack of apprentice teaching experience 1 

It will be noted, as with agricultural teachers, that the technical 
deficiencies are more frequently felt by teachers than the profes- 
sional, and that the chief reported failure of professional prepara- 
tion is definite connection with the type of teaching which is to be 
done. To teach general principles apart from any appropriate 
and usable associations is to leave a deficiency in teacher prepara- 
tion. 

Usefulness of Technical Studies 

In respect to the helpfulness of special technical preparation in 
the work of high school teaching, teachers were unanimous in the 
opinion that it was of value. Various ways in which the teachers' 
special proficiency in technical fields has been helpful are reported: 

Directly adaptable to the work of teaching 12 

Enables teacher to meet conditions and needs 13 

Helps in organization of teaching content 6 

Enables teacher to make teaching practical 3 

Gives teacher resource and intelligence 3 

Eighteen teachers have no suggestions to make with reference to 
the improvement of technical training; the others offer the follow- 
ing: 

Should be more definite and practical 8 

Should provide actual vocational experience 9 

Should fit directly for vocational teaching 6 

Should include conduct of projects 2 

Should include specific instruction in lunch-room management 

and costume design 3 

Should include travel and visits to vocations and schools 1 

All the suggestions appear sensible, though the last might offer 
considerable administrative difficulties. 

230 



Usefulness of Professional Studies 

With respect to the value of professional preparation the report 
of 46 teachers is as follows : 

Helpful in Present Teaching Work 

Percent of 
those who report 
No. such preparation 

Educational psychology 28 68.30 

Principles of teaching 29 72.50 

Teaching of homemaking 34 89.47 

Practice teaching 9 100.00 

It is interesting to note again that the more definitely the profes- 
sional instruction bears upon the particular job to be done, the 
more useful it is in the opinion of the teacher. 

Ways in which particular studies are of help are suggested rather 
vaguely by a few teachers. 

(a) Educational psychology 

Helps to understand pupils 10 

(b) Principles of teaching 

Gives understanding of the work 2 

Helps in planning work 3 

Helps in conduct of lessons 2 

(c) Teaching of homemaking 

Gives directly usable procedures 3 

(d) Practice teaching 

Enables application of principles 3 

Gives knowledge of the job 7 

(a) and (b) Aid in control of pupils 1 

(a), (b) and (c) Help in classroom management 2 

Unspecified : 

Enables teachers to meet needs of pupils 4 

Usefulness of Sciences 
In reply to a question concerning the utility of science preparation 
in the laying out of the work, teachers report the studies useful in 
the following order of frequency: 

Chemistry 30 Sociology 3 

Physiology 24 Botany 2 

Physics 19 Zoology 2 

Economics 9 

The low utihty of botany and zoology is understandable. The 
low rating of economics and sociology is probably because the prev- 

231 



alent subjects in the course, cookery and sewing, particularly the 
first are as yet almost wholly developed rather as applied sciences 
than as economic vocations or social activities. Much more atten- 
tion, for example, is given to elements and calories than to costs in 
cookery, much more to structure and texture in clothing than to the 
social implications. 

In reply to the question, "Of what use is your knowledge of them 
(the foregoing sciences) to your pupils? " the replies are as follows: 

Gives them insight and understanding of practical problems . . 19 

Makes explanations meaningful 10 

Enlarges their interests 5 

Correlates homemaking with other studies 4 

Gives confidence in resourcefulness of teacher 9 

Helps them to perform tests and experiments 3 

The uses reported are much like those found for science by the 
teachers of agriculture. The resourcefulness of the teacher in the 
matter of scientific implications is, of course, quite as important 
as in agriculture. 

Professional Improvement 

Only 16 of the 46 teachers, 34.8 percent, are engaged in or con- 
template any immediate work of professional improvement, and cer- 
tain of the undertakings hardly deserve a place in such a category. 

Planning to attend summer session 6 

Enrolled as graduate student 1 

Reading professional books 2 

Studying lesson plans and courses 1 

Doing regular sewing and cooking 2 

Working in dressmaking shop 4 

Employed in Home Bureau work 1 

Studying home nursing 1 

Studying French 1 

Studying elocution 1 

Value of Supervision 
Thirty-five teachers report the visits of State supervisory agents 
of value to them, 6 do not consider them valuable, and 5 do not com- 
mit themselves. The infrequency of such visits has already been 
noted, so that the reports are not surprising. 

Twenty-eight teachers make no reply to the question concerning 
the value of visits of teacher training agents; the others are equally 

232 



divided in judgment of the utility or non-utility of such visits. 
Few teachers have much experience in the matter. 

With regard to State and regional conferences of homemaking 
teachers, 38 teachers find them of value, 3 do not; 5 presumably new 
teachers who have never attended make no report. Only one 
teacher fails to find help in the bulletins and publications of the 
State department in regard to homemaking. 

Suggestions of Teachers 

Only 18 teachers have any suggestion to make with reference to 
the improvement of supervision: 

Visits should be more frequent 15 

Criticism should be more definite 1 

The principal should help in supervision 1 

There is too much disturbing supervision 1 

Suggestions with regard to conferences, readings, and publica- 
tions are made by 25 teachers: 

We need more of all of them 12 

We particularly need more conferences 10 

Teachers should be paid for attendance 1 

Teachers should be furnished with pubhcation lists 1 

Boards should be furnished with more reference material. ... 2 

The evidence is fairly strong that teachers would appreciate 
further efforts for professional improvement by the Division or 
Vocational and Extension Education. 

Teachers offer the following suggestions regarding strengthening 
measures to better preparation and professional improvement in 
service: 

Make college courses more practical 5 

Teachers should be enabled to attend summer school 5 

More courses in methods should be offered 1 

State should provide reading courses 1 

Other means of strengthening teaching are suggested : 

Increased opportunity to visit schools and attend meetings. ... 6 

Clear instruction with regard to projects 2 

Better provision for supervision of projects 2 

"Round Robin" correspondence between teachers 1 

More use of advisory committee 1 

233 



With respect to records and reports, 14 teachers offer suggestions: 

Eliminate project reports 4 

Simplify project reports 10 

Make records more uniform 4 

Require that a file of records be left at school 1 

Use card index for monthly reports 1 

Supply tests for skills 1 

Evidently the present system of records is regarded as unneces- 
sarily cumbersome. The last suggestion is worthy of consideration 
by the division also. 

Value of Advisory Board 

The advisory board organization has been very slow, only 14 
teachers of 46, or less than one in three, reporting the appointment 
of a board. In three cases of those the board has not yet had a 
meeting with the teacher, and in one the board of education serves 
as advisory board. The other 10 teachers report the board as useful 
in the following ways: 

By increasing general interest in the work 5 

By helpful suggestions to the teacher 2 

By assistance on selecting equipment 2 

By assistance in conducting exhibits 2 

Teaching Load 

The teaching load of homemaking teachers is appiroximately that 
of the average high school teacher in the rural districts, the median 
being six periods of teaching daily. Nineteen teachers carry two 
double periods daily, 23 three double periods, 4 four double periods. 

Forty-two report that they do not need more time for homemak- 
ing, 4 that they do. Forty-one do not need less time, 5 need a 
lighter schedule. Thirty-seven are satisfied with the present dis- 
tribution of hours, 9 wish a different distribution. Suggestions for 
improvement are offered by 19: 

Alternate subjects by successive days 4 

Use two half-days for laboratory, one double period per week 

for classroom instruction 3 

Make no load more than 3 double periods 3 

Have cooking a forenoon class 3 

Allow time for project supervision and lunchroom work 3 

Make the two periods of a class consecutive 1 

234 



It is a little astonishing to the surveyor that the last suggestion 
is not more frequent. In at least a half-dozen observed instances 
the principal has arranged the schedule so that girls may fill in any 
periods vacant of academic requirements with homemaking. As a 
result, classes are badly broken up, and two or three different kinds 
of work with different groups may be going on at the same time. 
It is such an arrangement that makes it necessary for the teacher to 
carry eight periods a day. As an example, one teacher visited 
taught eight periods a day and conducted the lunch-room. At no 
time during the day could all the numbers of the same class group 
be together for two consecutive periods. In routine project sewing 
the situation is tolerable, if wasteful. For any systematic develop- 
ment of technology it is intolerable. The state requirement should 
be more rigidly enforced. 



Distribution of Salaries Among 66 Teachers of Homemaking 


IN State- 






Aided Schools for 1920-21 






All 


Number of teachers represented 




Amount 
















Rural 


Urban 


Two-third 
salary 


One-half 
salary 


Inter- 
mediate 


$800 


1 


1 








1 





850 


1 


1 








1 





900 


2 


2 








2 


1 


1000 


14 


14 





1 


13 


1 


1072.50 


1 


1 








1 





1100 


8 


8 





2 


6 





1150 


1 





1 





1 





1170 


1 





1 





1 





1200 


18 


17 


1 


6 


12 


1 


1225 


1 


1 








1 





1250 


1 





1 





1 





1300 


4 


2 


2 





4 





1310 


1 





1 





1 





1350 


1 


1 








1 





1400 


4 


2 


2 


3 


1 





1500 


4 


4 





2 


2 





1650 


1 


1 








1 





1800 


2 


2 








2 







66 


57 


9 


14 


52 


3 



235 





Median 


Upper 
quartile 


Lower 
quartile 


All schools 


1200 
1200 
1300 
1200 
1200 
1000 


1250-1800 
1200-1800 


800-1000 


Rural schools 


800-1000 


Urban schools 




Two-thirds salary 

One-half salary 

Intermediate schools . . . 


1400-1500 
1250-1860 


1000-1200 
800-1000 









The foregoing table indicates that teachers of homemaking 
receive for the academic year of employment approximately the 
same salaries as other women teachers in the rural high schools to 
the paying of whose salaries the State lends no special aid. Al- 
though the few urban teachers included receive a higher median 
salary than those in the smaller schools, there is no evidence that 
the salary advantage is great enough to compensate for probable 
differences in living expense. Under State aid the larger places 
will not draw from the smaller by salary appeal at present. 

Places employing sole teachers of homemaking are, in the median, 
doing no better by their teachers than schools of the double organi- 
zation. Only three of the four intermediate school teachers are 
represented. It is noteworthy that their salaries, like those of the 
principals of intermediate schools, tend to the lower end of the scale. 
Absence of Federal aid is not, however, a factor in the case, since no 
teachers of homemaking receive payment from Federal allotments. 



236 



CHAPTER XIV 
ENROLMENT AND PUPILS IN HOMEMAKING 

ENROLMENT figures were secured for 52 of the 55 schools in 
the rural districts and for 9 urban schools. Half the schools 
had an enrolment of 19 or under, half of 19 or over, as against 
a median of 16 in the case of agricultural schools. Since a majority 
of pupils are girls in the rural high school, and since homemaking is 
less selective of the farm girls than agriculture of the farm boys, 
there is probably little difference in the attracting power of the two 
types of work. 

The distribution of enrolment by schools is shown below: 



1920-21 



Number 

pupils 

enrolled 


Rural 


Urban 


All 


Number 

pupils 

enrolled 


Rural 


Urban 


All 


schools 


schools 


schools 


schools 


schools 


schools 


3 


1 





1 


22 


2 





2 


7 


1 





1 


23 


1 


1 


2 


8 


1 





1 


25 


3 


1 


4 


9 


1 





1 


26 


1 





1 


10 


2 





2 


27 


1 





1 


11 


5 





5 


28 


1 





1 


12 


2 





2 


31 


1 





1 


13 


1 


1 


2 


32 


2 





2 


14 


2 


1 


3 


33 


1 





1 


15 


4 





4 


34 


2 


1 


3 


16 


1 





1 


35 


1 





1 


17 


4 





4 


37 





1 


1 


18 


3 





3 


39 


1 





1 


19 


4 





4 


41 





1 


1 


20 


3 





3 


47 





1 


1 


21 


1 


1 


2 











Median all schools 19 

Median rural schools 19 

Median urban schools 25 

237 



It will be noted that in the upper quartile enrolment runs much 
higher than in agriculture. Three of the schools in that group 
employ two teachers. 

Size of Classes 
On account of the apparent prevalence of free election in home- 
making the only reliable index to size of classes is in the report of 
attendance upon lessons observed. 



Number 
pupils in 


Total 


Sewing 


Dressmaking 


Cooking 


Other 


attendance 










LKfJjKJILj 


3 


6 


2 


2 


1 


1 


4 


6 


4 





1 


1 


5 


6 


2 


1 


1 


2 


6 


5 





1 


4 





7 


4 


1 


1 


2 





8 


5 


1 


3 





1 


9 


2 


1 





1 





10 


5 


3 





2 





11 


3 








2 


1 


12 


2 





1 


1 





14 


5 


2 


2 


1 





16 


2 








2 





17 


1 


1 











21 


1 





1 









The median for sewing is 7 ; for dressmaking 8 ; for cookery 8 ; for 
other lessons 5 ; for all lessons reported 7. Actual size of classes will 
run a little higher, since only attendance is recorded. Probably 
8 pupils is a representative subject class in homemaking. 



Occupation or Parents 
The occupation of the parent is probably of less significance in 
the case of girls in homemaking than in that of boys in agriculture 
or pupils in any other sort of vocational work. But it may serve 
to indicate the probable home and economic status of the group 
taught. Of 880 girls reporting from 50 schools the occupation of 
parents is shown in the following classification: 

238 



Occupation No. Percent 

Agricultural 457 51 .93 

Mechanic trades 100 11 .36 

Commercial 82 9.32 

Transportation 60 6 . 82 

Manufactures 46 5.22 

Professional 38 4 .32 

Other 97 11.03 



Upbringing 
Place of upbringing and residence is reported by 873 as follows: 

Upbringing No. Percent 

Country 435 49 .82 

Village 302 34.59 

City 45 5.15 

Country and village 45 5.15 

Village and city 26 2 .97 

Country and city 11 1 . 26 

Country, village and city 9 1 .03 

Residence (882 replies) 

On a farm 424 48 .07 

Not on a farm 458 51 .93 

There is no reason to think that homemaking is selective accord- 
ing to country and village upbringing, nor according to the type of 
home or parents' occupation, more than a non-vocational and 
unrequired study in the rural high school. Unfortunately there are 
no data available for comparison in that respect. The differences 
between homemaking and agriculture are, however, considerable as 
has been noted. There are certainly fewer differences in homemak- 
ing experience and home surroundings than would be found in the 
high school population of large cities. The indications point to a 
vast predominance of the middle group economy in family life, liv- 
ing on a modest income and in a single homesteading. Even the 
most prosperous mercantile and professional men in the smaller 
villages do not depart far from the American standard in that 
respect. The facts that 97 girls in 100 have shared in the duties of 
the household economy, and that 57 in 100 have worked for hire 
point to the same conclusion. 

Other than household employment for which figures have already 
been given, girls in homemaking report employment as follows : 

239 



Harvesting crops 173 Selling agents 10 

Other farm work 28 Telephone exchange 16 

Raising poultry or animals 13 Music 9 

Factory work 60 Track walking 2 

Office work 28 Garage 1 

Clerking 79 Teaching school .... 1 

Companion 1 

The range of periods of employment for pay is from one-half day 
in two cases to six years in four cases, with a median of approxi- 
mately four months, as nearly as the reports can be interpreted. 

Choice of Vocation 

On the basis of such experience in vocations and their community 
and school experience girls declare choice of vocations as follows : 

Prospective occupation No. Percent 

Teaching 269 30.41 

Business or office work 184 20.86 

Nursing 124 14.06 

Housekeeping 36 4 . 08 

Millinery and dressmaking 19 2.15 

Music 7 .79 

Miscellaneous 68 7.71 

Undecided 175 19.94 

A girl who is not engaged to be married or who does not expect 
to take her mother's place in the home is, of course, unlikely to 
report homemaking as her chosen vocation. There is no doubt, 
nevertheless, that the great majority of girls mil within a few years 
find that the major occupation in life, so that the value of the home- 
making preparation is not to be measured against the indicated 
choice. Yet it is worth noting that at least one girl in five has 
indicated choice of a vocation for which homemaking offers more 
nearly a preparation than any other course in the high school. 
Even for girls choosing office work the fact that in many schools the 
only specific training in accounting is in the homemaking course 
may count for something. 

Intention to go to College 
Intention to go to college is reported by 339 girls in homemaking, 
or 38.22 percent. Of them 154 or 45.43 percent are farmer's daugh- 
ters. Thus, the farmer's daughter appears only slightly less Ukely 

240 



to plan on college than the villager's daughter, and considerably 
more likely to do so than her brother. By classes 48 percent of 
seniors plan to go to college, 39.38 percent of juniors, 39.23 percent 
of sophomores, 37.86 percent of freshmen. It is not to be inferred, 
however, that the vocational diploma will open the way for the 
majority, because of the prevalence of election already pointed out. 
The courses chosen are as follows : 

Course Percent Course Percent 

Domestic science 33 .63 Music 3 .54 

Business 22 . 42 Fine arts 2 . 36 

Normal training 12 .09 Physical education. . 2 .07 

Liberal arts 6.49 Other 3.25 

Nurse training 3 .83 Undecided 12 .39 

The same questions were asked of girls in homemaking as of boys 
in agriculture in regard to intention to stick through the course, and 
reasons for leaving it. But since so many girls took the question 
to refer to the high school course to which their present work in 
homemaking was but an accessory, the data are valueless. Here 
is one more indication that cooking, sewing, etc., are looked upon 
as additional studies and not as a developmental course. 

Reasons for Choosing Homemaking 

With reference to reasons for taking the homemaking work 
replies are somewhat more satisfactory. In order of frequency the 
reasons given are as follows, many girls giving several reasons : 

To make clothing (particularly their own dresses) 351 

To learn to cook (or because of a liking for cookery) 283 

Because the work is interesting 239 

To earn Regents credits 108 

Because the work is practical 98 

Because of the future usefulness of the knowledge 78 

To learn how to " keep house " 66 

Because it will help in a chosen vocation 54 

To help mother better at home 49 

Because of interest in special phases 36 

To add to general fund of knowledge 28 

Prefer it to language study 26 

Nothing else to take (intermediate schools) 21 

To learn to be economical 14 

Because mother desired it 6 

To earn money 1 

1 6 241 



CHAPTER XV 
EQUIPMENT FOR HOMEMAKING 

NO DETAILED record of equipment is as yet kept in the 
office of the Division of Vocational and Extension Educa- 
tion. Specialists in their visiting of schools inspect equip- 
ment with reference to its adequacy and appropriateness to the 
particular needs of the school, and give advice and recommenda- 
tion concerning it. But in the absence of more frequent intimate 
supervision it appears that a wide range of differences in amount and 
kind of equipment for work that is substantially similar is tolerated. 
The advice given is excellent, particularly with reference to avoid- 
ance of the over-elaborate and sometimes toy-like individual equip- 
ment furnished by laboratory supply houses, and the advocacy of 
typical utensils of the sort used in homes. But there is at present no 
very close check upon the efficiency of such advice in securing results. 
In course of observation of teaching in 25 schools visitors made 
brief inspection of equipment and questioned teachers concerning 
particular needs. In summary such equipment as the school pos- 
sessed was in the main of good vocational type, i. e., of the sort used 
in homes, in all schools. It was reported sufficient for teaching 
purposes, in the judgment of the observer, in 13 schools, insufficient 
in 12. The most serious lacks reported by teachers were: 

In cooking utensils 10 In supply of running water 3 

In table service 7 In having no sink 1 

In storage room 8 In having no hot water 1 

In wardrobe supply 4 In having no fuel supply 1 

In sewing equipment 4 

Rooms 

Schools having: Laboratory room 17 

One room only 15 Separate sewing room 9 

Sewing room and cooking room . 8 Separate kitchen unit 7 

Sewing room, dining room, and Separate dining room 2 

kitchen 2 Separate laundry 2 

Separate recitation room 1 Practice house 1 

242 



Location of Rooms 

All rooms in basement 3 All rooms on other floors 9 

Laboratory in basement 1 Classroom on other floors 1 

Kitchen in basement 2 Sewing room on other floors 2 

All rooms in attic 2 All rooms in separate building 7 

Buildings 
Old buildings. . . .12 New buildings 6 Other 7 



Condition of Rooms 
Very neat and orderly 20 Moderately neat and orderly 5 

Arrangement of Rooms 
Judged by observer to be good 22, poor 3 

Special Deficiencies in Rooms 

Poor ceilings 3 Poor furnishings 1 

Bad walls 2 Low desks 1 

Bad floors 3 Dangerous stairs 1 

Bad finish 2 Damp 1 

Noisy 2 Too small 1 

Not chairs enough 1 

Special Merits in Rooms 

Large and light 3 Excellent furniture 1 

Newly furnished 3 Prettily decorated 1 

Lighting 
Well lighted . . 7 Acceptably lighted . . 12 Badly lighted . . 6 

Ventilation 

Status Method 

Good 5 Fan 5 

Acceptable 16 Window 17 

Bad 4 Floor vents 3 

Heating 

Results Kinds 

Good 7 Steam 9 

Acceptable 12 Hot air 2 

Too little 5 Stove 3 

Too much 1 Not reported 11 

Sinks Water 

One sink 17 Running water 21 

Two sinks 7 No running water 4 

No sinks 1 Running hot water 9 

243 



Floors 

Hard wood 17 

Soft wood 5 

Hardwood and concrete 1 

Concrete 1 

Hardwood and linoleum 1 



Condition 
Rough and poor 3 



Cooking Stoves 



No. of 
schools 



Oil stoves only 5 

2 oil stoves 1 

3 oil stoves 2 

5 oil stoves 1 

6 oil stoves 1 

Coal and wood range only 2 

1 range only 2 

Gas plates only 

12 plates 1 

Electric plates only 

Number of electric plates not 

given 

Gas plates, oil stoves, and gas range 

Gas plates and gas range 4 

Gas plates and wood and coal range 1 
Oil stoves and coal and wood range . 7 
Oil stoves and gas range 1 



No. of 
schools 

8 



Schools using gas plates in cooking . . 

2 plates 1 

6 plates 1 

8 plates 2 

12 plates 2 

14 plates 1 

16 plates 1 

Schools using Bunsen burners in 

cooking 1 

Schools using oil stoves in cooking . 16 

1 stove 5 

2 stoves 1 

3 stoves 4 

4 stoves 1 

5 stoves 2 

6 stoves 3 

Schools using gas range in cooking . . 8 

1 range 7 

3 ranges 1 

Schools using coal and wood range 

in cooking 8 

1 range 8 



Sewing MACfflNEs 



Number of machines 

1 machine 6 

2 machines 5 

3 machines 7 

4 machines 7 



Machines in good condition 

No machines 1 

1 machine 8 

2 machines 4 

3 machines 7 

4 machines 5 



All machines owned in good condition, 17; some machines out of order, 8. 

In rooms it is evident that conditions are fairly satisfactory, and 
that teachers take good care of their rooms. With one room only, 
of course, it is difficult to approximate the actual environment of 
homemaking as a vocation, but there are advantages with a single 
teacher in having all work in one commodious room. If a unit 
arrangement be developed, many of the disadvantages are done 
away with. But there is little evidence of a tendency to use such 

244 



an arrangement. The surveyor is not prepared to discuss the merits 
of the various arrangements reported. Homemaking experts are 
not in agreement with respect to them. There seems to be, how- 
ever, no standard among teachers. Of deficiencies in rooms, the 
most conspicuous is a lack of storage space. 

In the common types of equipment, i. e., cooking and sewing, 
there are a wide range of differences and a rather large deficiency. 
Some doubt is thrown upon the observers' judgment in the matter 
of appropriateness of other than utensils in the cooking equipment. 
That four schools of 75 have to carry all water in pails and one has 
no sink are distinct handicaps. Many farm homes, of course, have 
no running water, but the more progressive type of home does, and 
to set a standard by the progressive type seems reasonable. Oil 
stoves and coal and wood ranges will probably prevail for a long 
time to come, yet less than one school in three has both, and more 
than one school in three has neither. Only two schools were sup- 
plied with natural gas. The gas plate, the Bunsen burner, and the 
gas range supplied from a school generator are too common to 
indicate a very appropriate selection. The convenience of such in 
a school is not disputed, but their appropriateness to homemaking 
instruction is seriously doubted. A school supplied with electric 
plates only is expensively equipped, but decidedly deficient. Coal 
and wood ranges are expensive, but not more so than gas ranges, 
which outnumber them; the fuel and ashes problem makes them 
troublesome in a school, but they represent the type of equipment 
used in the winter months, at least, in farm and small village homes. 
Such ranges, with the blue-flame oil stoves, should be part of the 
kitchen equipment of all but the exceptionally located rural high 
school if the cooking experience is to be of the genuine vocational 
type. 

By careful planning one or two sewing machines in good running 
order may be made to serve the needs of a small class. As to how 
far the sewing machine equipment is adequate the surveyor offers 
no opinion. 

By Special Subjects 

In home nursing, household decoration, laundry work, and house- 
hold management, the reports on equipment bear out those of 

245 



teachers in regard to conspicuous deficiency. For home nursing 
19 schools have no equipment at all; two have a first-aid cabinet 
only; one has a cabinet and a bed; one has a special room with 
cabinet and bed; and two use the Red Cross rooms with substan- 
tially the same equipment. 

For home decoration no equipment at all is reported in 16 cases; 
2 schools use their own rooms for purposes of decoration; 2 have 
made screens or curtains; 5 depend on books and illustrations. 

For laundry work the commonest equipment is for pressing 
clothes only. The detailed report follows : 

No equipment at all 5 

Special laundry room with complete equipment 3 

Using a satisfactory borrowed laundry 1 

Tubs, irons, ironing-board, wringer, etc 4 

Tub and ironing board 1 

One tub only 2 

Iron board and irons 8 

Ironing board, but no irons 1 

For household management one school has a practice apartment 
of which girls take charge in rotation. 

Reports on library equipment are not detailed, no report at all 
being made in 4 cases, and the others in rather general terms. The 
summary follows : 

Less than 10 books, property of teacher 5 

About a dozen books supplied by school, plus more belonging 

to the teacher 3 

20 to 30 books supplied by school 5 

12 or fewer books supplied by school 5 

"Good supply" mostly belonging to teacher 3 

In six cases the school subscribed to one or more magazines in 
homemaking. 

In discussion of content some mention will be made of the texts 
and references most frequently used. It appears that half the 
schools are throwing the burden of library upon the teacher and 
that the majority have very small resources for book study. School 
boards and principals are not fully justified in complaining that 
homemaking is kept on a mechanical basis, while they deny to the 
pupils the opportunity of access to printed sources of technological 
information. 

246 



CHAPTER XVI 
REACHING THE GIRLS 

NO DATA are available to show how far vocational work in 
homemaking reaches pupils who might profit by it. Con- 
sidering, however, the relatively small proportion among 
country girls of adolescent age who are enrolled in high school, the 
relatively small number of high schools offering vocational courses, 
the entire absence of industrial schools, evening schools, and con- 
tinuation schools from the rural districts, it is fair to conclude that 
hardly a furrow has been turned in a large field of opportunity. 
The elementary school and junior project work accompUsh some- 
thing, the college extension service something, but mainly with 
groups below and above the adolescent stage. The division is 
aware of the deficiency. 

For the regularly enrolled high school student there is room to 
doubt that a four year course calling for seven-twelfths of the 
pupils' time is the best means of reaching the largest number, or 
even that such a course is necessary to essentials, whatever they 
may be. The intermediate school organization is less a misfit with 
girls than with boys, but deserves particular attention in the matter 
of revision of content. Short course work is contemplated, but as 
yet hardly attempted. With the full time of the teacher required 
for adequate high school instruction it is doubtful that much can 
be made of it on the present basis. 

Teachers were not very prolific in the matter of suggestions with 
regard to making their work accessible to a large number. Ques- 
tions and replies in reference to the matter follow: 

"What provision do you make for extending some of the benefits 
of homemaking instruction to pupils in school who are not enrolled 
in your classes?" 

None 22 Various 24 

247 



Frequencies of various provisions: 

School lunch room 16 

Help them with sewing 5 

Junior project and grade work 6 

Parties and banquets 5 

Night class in cookery 2 ' 

Posters and style charts 4 

Exhibits 2 

Hold Homemaking Day 1 

Admit to practice house 1 

Homemaking club 1 

"Do present entrance requirements eliminate girls who might 
profit by your course? " 

No 21 Yes 15 No answer 10 

"Do they admit those unfit to profit by the course? " 

No 33 Yes 7 No answer 6 

" What suggestions have you to offer with regard to entrance 

requirements? " 

No suggestions 17 

None but fully matriculated high school pupils should be 

admitted 2 

Should be open to grade 8 7 

Entrance should be for full course, not a part 1 

High school girls should have free election 6 

Age requirements should be observed 2 

Girls of seventeen in any grade should be admitted 2 

Cooking should be given girls who leave elementary school 

before completion 3 

Preliminary grade work in homemaking should be prerequisite . 2 

"Is your present course too long? " 

Yes 11 No 28 No answer 7 

"Is it too, short?" 

Yes 1 No 36 No answer 9 

Evidently teachers are well satisfied with the present length of 
course, though some favor a shorter one. 

" Do all those who might profit by your course know of it? " 
Yes 35 No 7 No answer 4 

" What means do you use to make the opportunity known? " 

None 11 

248 



Frequency of measures used: 

Personal talks with pupils 18 

Exhibits of work 18 

Writing for newspapers 6 

Sending out school circular 3 

Junior project teaching 3 

Visits to rural schools 2 

Demonstrating before grange 2 

Articles in Farm Bureau publications 2 

Apparently homemaking teachers are somewhat less active than 
agricultural teachers in the matters of publicity and recruiting. 

"What suggestions have you to make as to possible aid to you in 
the matter? " 

No suggestions 27 

At beginning of year statement of nature of course, and of its 
conformity to college entrance requirements should be sent 

to all prospective pupils 4 

Means to educating parents should be used 6 

Means to educating faculty should be used 2 

One year should be required of all students 2 

"What suggestions have you with regard to possible courses for 
pupils not now admitted to your course?" 

No suggestions 16 

Offering of one year or two year courses 5 

Work in grades VII and VIII 6 

Cooking from grade IV on 13 

After school classes 2 

Junior project clubs 4 



249 



CHAPTER XVII 
CONTENT OF THE COURSE 

THE content of the course is, in the light of preceding com- 
ments, perhaps best illustrated by the following syllabus. 
The suggestive lists of references have been eliminated, and 
report offered later on books most frequently used. Though the 
course suggested goes occasionally beyond the resources of the 
small community and the needs also, and is faulty in respect to 
providing what is least complementary to home experience for the 
greatest number, yet it should go far to insure an enrichment of 
the present offering. There is no poverty of content in the tech- 
nological side. If intimate and frequent supervision can be pro- 
vided for the improvement of teachers in service the trend of teach- 
ing under it should be rapidly away from the present mechanical 
standard. The entire syllabus is quoted. 

SYLLABUS 

The University of the State of New York 

State Department of Education 

Division of Agricultural and Industrial Education 

Tentative Course of Study 

in Homemaking 

for 

Homemaking Departments 
in 
High Schools 

250 



homemaking i 
Elementary Foods 

The aim of this course is to teach the pupils how to plan and pre- 
pare family meals intelligently. Work other than cooking should 
form the greater part of the course. Consideration should be 
made for planning the food with regard to the needs of the various 
members of the group, for selecting proper foods in the market and 
at sensible cost, for organizing the work so as to use equipment and 
utensils to the best advantage and to accomplish the work with as 
little waste of energy and time as possible. 

In order to do this, preliminary study must be made of rooms, 
utensils and food before actual preparation of the meals. A study 
of the composition of various classes of foods with practical experi- 
ment, the effect of heat on various substances in food, the effect of 
combinations of food materials, should precede meal preparation 
as well as a thorough study of processes of cooking, essential utensils 
for the cooking processes and organization of work. 

All food prepared as a result of class work should be used for some 
good purpose. When not desiring a meal for class use, these pre- 
pared foods should be turned into the lunch room. Plans can be 
made so this is entirely possible. 

As far as possible meals prepared should be served at meal time 
and to a group desirous and needing the meal. In this way the 
meals would be self-supporting. If this is not possible, a group 
from the class may be selected to be served. 

Principles Practice 

A study of fuels applied to the pre- Visits in vicinity to various agencies 

paration of meals. where 

(c) Food is prepared for market, such 
A study of types and arrangement of as 

kitchen utensils for economy of Food factories. 

time and energy. Bakeries. 

I Jo I |"1f*C 

A study of the preservation of foods, 

various methods and agents used. {K\ Food is sold 

How foods are prepared for market. t.°ui-^ ^^^i" ^ 

^ ^ Public markets. 

Consideration of conservation and C*^) Kitchen and dining room equip- 
thrift in all cooking. ment is made or sold 

Factories. 
Structure and composition of food. Business establishments. 

251 



Principles 

Simple laws of nutrition: 
What body needs. 
How to get it. 

Planning meals to fit needs discussed 
above. 

Purchase of food used : 

Various methods of buying. 

Comparative prices. 

Care and storage of such food. 

A study of efficient methods of work- 
ing to bring about satisfactory and 
prompt service of a meal. 

Esthetic and common sense basis for 
methods of serving. 



Practice 

Purchase and care of any equip- 
ment for this work. 

Storage of food which may not be 
used immediately. 

Planning of family meals, using 
size and income of the average 
family in community. 

For one week, illustrating repeti- 
tion of series with variations in 
kinds of foods used: 

Purchase and care of this food. 

Study of time and cost of meals, 
with keeping of food accounts, 
calculation of other expenses. 

Preparation of meals for family 
group. 

At least four breakfasts, six 
lunches or suppers, and five 
dinners, including in the series 
the various typical dishes be- 
longing to the meal. 

Scheduling of work. 

Serving of these meals. 

Clearing away. 

Care of rooms and equipment. 



homemaking ii 
Elementary Clothing and Design 

This course is to be based on the girl's own wardrobe but will 
include a judicious amount of community problems. The stated 
principles may be illustrated in projects other than those outlined 
provided the problems involved are of corresponding difficulty. 
Care should be taken to have the assigned problem of such a char- 
acter that the high school girl will realize that she has a real problem 
that will require thought, study and energy of the same degree as 
her other high school subjects. 

The ninety-minute period may be considered as a directed study 
period and opportunities should be given for use of reference mate- 
rial, illustration material and daily discussions. 

A few lessons in miUinery may be introduced in this course if 
local conditions indicate the need, but the main course in millinery 
will be part of homemaking IV. 

252 



Principles and Processes 

Study of different kinds of equipment. 

Machines and their attachments. 

Study of textiles from the purchaser's 
point of view, based on fabrics used 
in class work, including simple trim- 
ming. 

The girl's personal wardrobe as a 
foundation of year's work. 

Principles underlying clothing budget. 

Planning the garment: Expenditure, 
design, fabric, comparison with 
ready-to-wear. 

Use and adaptation of commercial pat- 
terns, with free-hand cutting of 
accessories and changes. 

Different methods of putting garments 
together. 

Basis of judging the value and place of 
fine handwork. 

Standards for speed tests. 

Economics of clothing buying — Care 
of wardrobe repair, daily upkeep. 

Interest in community needs. 

Economics of clothing buying. 

Care of wardrobe, repair, daily upkeep. 

Interest in community needs. 



Individual responsibility of consumer: 
Consumer's league. 
Conditions in garment-making fac- 
tories. 

Market conditions of textile fibers. 

Pure textile legislation. 

Design to be related to each problem 
as to beauty, line, mass and color 
harmonies. 

Knowledge and use of tools for simple 
mechanical drawing. 

Representation by pencil sketching. 
Designs as related to the individ- 
ual. Relation of fine arts to indus- 
trial arts. Value of decoration. 



Practice 

Selection of practical problems to be 
determined by the local need, na- 
tional emergencies and personal re- 
quirements of the individual pupil. 

Each new garment to be simple in 
construction and decoration. 

Each pupil to complete at least one 
problem from each group, including 
at least one hand-made garment. 

All girls to be able to make a simple 
one-piece dress or its equivalent at 
the close of the course. 

1. Planning a high school girl's ward- 

robe. 

2. Clothing for pupils 

(a) Undergarments. 

(b) One-piece dress or equiva- 

lent. 

3. Children's and infant's clothing. 

4. Community garments for or- 

phanages, hospitals, and char- 
ity organizations : 

(a) Undergarments. 

(b) Simple outer garments. 

5. Study of textiles and trimmings, 

simple household tests for 
kinds and qualities of fabric 
purchased or used in class 
work, with emphasis upon 
cottons and linens. 

6. School furnishings and equip- 

ments, such as curtains, 
towels, aprons, etc. 

7. Care and repair of pupil's ward- 

robe: 

8. (a) Brushing, removal of spots, 

pressing, etc. 
(b) Patching and darning of 
s t o c k in g s, undergarments, 
and outer garments. 

9. Application of art principles in 

adaptation of commercial 
patterns, dress accessories, 
color schemes, study of fa- 
brics; comparative study of 
fashion sheets; sketching of 
garments. 
10. Decorative sewing. Embroidery 
of table linens, towels, or 
dress accessories. 



253 



homemaking iii 

Lunch Room and Special Cookery 

It is desirable that the pupils have an opportunity to plan and 
prepare food for large groups, buying and cooking in quantity, and 
serving in various ways, thus becoming acquainted with large 
problems of organization and manipulation, as well as developing 
adaptability, cooperation, and leadership. 



Principles 

Meal problems of the community — 
Home. 
Institution: 
Hospitals. 
Hotels. 
Restaurants. 
Lunch rooms. 
Menu cards — preparation and use. 

Adaptation of family recipes to large 

quantity cooking. 
Special equipment, furnishings, and 

utensils for large quantity cooking. 

Kind, cost, care, and manipulation. 
Various methods of buying foods in 

large quantities. 
The public market. 
Storage of food materials. 
Study of the standardized serving — 

amount, food value, cost of serving, 

selhng price. 
Menu card — preparation and use. 
Methods of serving food to patrons — 

Cafeteria. 

Tray. 

Personal service. 
Standard of cleanliness for room, 

equipment, utensils, handhng, food, 

workers. 
Organization of work and workers. 
Business methods. 

Keeping accounts, banking, inven- 
tories, etc. 
A study of organization and depart- 
ments which have control of foods. 
Pure food laws. 
Food inspection. 
Standard weights and measures. 



In almost all schools there is a need for a hot lunch, at least dur- 
ing the winter months. This may be as simple as one hot dish, 

254 



Practice 

Visits to institutions where large num- 
bers of people are fed : 
Hotels. 
Hospitals. 
Restaurants. 
Lunch rooms. 
A study of food, menus, equipment, 

rooms, service. 
Reorganization of recipes to meet 

special demands. 
Equipping and furnishing the lunch 
room to bring about greatest saving 
of energy and time. 
Manipulation and care of any kind of 

apparatus installed for this work. 
Visiting centers for selling food of 

various kinds. 
Buying of foods. 
Storage of foods. 
Organizing the store room. 
Checking supplies. 
Making inventories. 
Figuring cost of food and seUing price. 



Determining food values. 



Preparing menus. 

Serving food to patrons. 

Participation in all phases of lunch- 
room work. 

Organizing work to use time of work- 
ers to greatest advantage. 

Keeping records and accounts. 

Banking. 



such as cocoa or soup, supplementing a packed lunch brought from 
home. Or it may take on the proportions of a real meal. The 
group needing it will also vary in size from six or eight to several 
hundred. Whatever the problem, it offers a splendid field for 
practice for the homemaking pupils. It is recommended that 
where the problem does not require the full-time service of a man- 
ager, the work be in charge of the homemaking teacher. This will 
permit strong correlation of the foods classes. 

If the school lunch consists of but the one hot dish, the problem 
is not sufficiently broad to hold the attention of the pupil for the 
semester. The organization and opening of the lunch can well 
afford to be a class problem, but thereafter the responsibility for 
the food may be assigned to two or more pupils in turn and other 
class work conducted. 

If the school lunch does not afford wide enough possibilities for 
participation in these phases of work, the community offers other 
opportunities to give the pupils this experience. These may be 
found in church suppers, grange meals, community suppers, lunches 
for Y. M. C. A. or Y. W. C. A., refreshments for parties, receptions, 
teas, food sales, candy sales, picnic lunches, box lunches, etc. It is 
recommended that the pupils prepare refreshment for parties, give 
a food sale, and participate in at least one meal for a large number 
outside the school. 

Homemaking IV 
Dressmaking and Millinery 

This course will be based on more general principles of clothing 
budgeting, and will include the use of materials more difficult to 
handle and the renovation of garments. The suggestions regarding 
Homemaking II would apply to all courses in clothing. 

The aim of the lessons in millinery is to give the pupil some 
general principles governing the selection of appropriate and becom- 
ing headwear, with experience in construction work that will aid 
her in her future capacity as a consumer. A few weeks of this 
course, not to exceed one-fourth of the time, may be devoted to the 
study of millinery. Care should be taken in the selection of the 

255 



practical problems that elementary work in which no new problem 
is presented or which partakes of the nature of repetitive drudgery 
be eliminated. There are many types of garment work under this 
second course that may be presented in the light of much more 
advanced work than in Homemaking II. 

The community work in this course may be carried in larger 
quantities with cooperative work admitting of speed tests and the 
use of power sewing machines. It is recommended that all girls 
have the experience of using a power sewing machine at some time 
during the homemaking course. 

Opportunity for speed and accuracy in running through a quan- 
tity of garments of the same kind is to be afforded. The use of the 
community problem will provide this practice. 



Principles 



Clothing budgets. 



Remodeling and renovation. 



Scientific study of machines and at- 
tachments. 



Standards for systematizing for time, 
for speed, and for efiiciency. 



Value of cooperative work in construc- 
tion of community garments. Study 
of textiles used and discussed in con- 
nection with construction work. 



Principles of design in use of com- 
mercial patterns. 



Care of wool and silk garments. 



Principles of design and color applied 
to new garments, to renovation, and 
combination of materials. 



Laws of appropriate dress. 



Practice 

Each pupil to complete at least one 
problem from the outlined group : 

1. The family clothing budget. 

2. Community problems in large 

quantities, with division of 
labor. 

(a) Red Cross. 

(b) Hospitals. 

1. Remaking adult garments. 

2. Rehning coats or wraps. 

3. Remodeling personal gar- 

ments. 

4. Construction of waists: 

(a) Lingerie. 

(b) Tailored. 

(c) Silk. 

5. One-piece dress: 

(a) Wool. 

(b) Silk. 

6. Semi- tailored construc- 

tion: 

(a) Skirt. 

(b) Coat or wrap. 

7. Renovation and retrim- 

ming. 

8. Renovation of headwear 

for institutional needs. 

9. Making of headwear: 

(a) Personal need. 

(b) Family need. 

(c) Children. 

10. Application of principles 
of design in making of 



256 



Principles 
Psychology of fashions. 

Economics and aesthetic basis for se- 
lection and purchasing of clothing. 



Standard for criticism and trimmings 
for hats. 



Renovation of materials and trim- 
mings for hats. 



The high school girl's hat — simplicity, 
becomingness, and individuality. 



Practice 

simple trimmings for 
gowns, in making of 
ribbon flowers and trim- 
mings for hats. 

11. Study of textiles used in 

construction work and 
in class discussions, with 
simple home tests for 
identification, strength, 
color, and adulteration. 
Emphasis upon silks 
and woolens. 

12. Shopping trips, with spe- 

cial attention to con- 
struction of ready-to- 
wear garments, new 
styles for class criticisms 
and suggestions for 
class construction work. 

13. Trips to manufacturing 

plants pertaining to the 
subject. 



homemaking v 
House Planning and Decoration 
The aim of this course is to give such instruction as will enable 
the pupils to appreciate the real meaning of the home, to be able to 
select and plan a simple house with its furnishings so as to serve the 
best interests of the individual and the family, economic, sanitary 
and aesthetic. 



Principles 

The development of the family. The 
evolution of the home and the house. 

Individual responsibility and coop- 
eration. 

Choice of home — rent or purchase. 

Principles of site — location. 

Simple mechanical drawing for plans. 

Principles of simple house construc- 
tion. 

Study of building materials. 

Principles of sanitation, ventilation, 
and plumbing. 

Study of materials and fabrics used in 
furniture and furnishings. Brief 
study of period furnishings. 

Principles of economy, appropriate- 
ness to purpose, and beauty, appHed 
to purchase of furniture and fur- 
nishings. 



Practice 

Drawing of floor plans, simple 
houses. 

Drawings of elevation and details 
of house accessories. 

Study of different types of plumb- 
ing, methods of ventilation; sani- 
tary principles to be applied to 
house plan. 

Study of local sites for houses. 

Selection and arrangement of furni- 
ture and furnishings for rooms. 

Pupil's personal room. Pupil's 
house. School apartment or 
rooms. 



17 



257 



HOMEMAKING VI-A 

The course in household science is based upon the work in aca- 
demic science, either biology, chemistry, or physics. It is not in 
any way to be considered as a substitute for academic science. 

Many of the principles and practices outlined here can well be 
taught in connection wdth the preceding courses. For instance, 
combustion with its attendant principles and practice in use of 
stoves could be studied in connection with the work with fuels in 
Course I; the laws of mechanical appliances in the home — levers, 
screws — could well be studied when apparatus illustrating these prin- 
ciples — scissors, coffee-mill, meat-chopper, vacuum cleaner — is being 
used in connection with class and home practice in Courses I and II. 

These studies should be made in direct connection with practical 
use and practice in the various fields of housekeeping, and form a 
basis of understanding for many of these processes. 



Principles 

Laws of expansion — gases, liquids, 
solids. 

Evaporation. 

Source of water supplies for towns and 
cities. 

Methods of purifying water for drink- 
ing. 

Solutions, emulsions, suspensions, fil- 
trations, tinctures, solution of gas. 



Crystallization and amorphous mate- 
rials. 

Oxidation and oxidizing agents. 

Combustion. 

Temperature, thermometer. 

Heat and its transference. Conduc- 
tion. Radiation. 

Acids — bases and salts. 

Photography. 

Oils, fats — drying oils; volatile oils. 

Soap — soft, hard, liquid, scouring. 

Effects of plants on preservation of 
household materials. 



Practice 

Explanation of common every-day ex- 
periences, such as floating ice, 
breaking of thick glass when put in 
hot water, Hfting of lids of milk 
bottles when frozen. 

Using pressure cooker. 

Cookers built on principle of evapora- 
tion. 

Study of local water supply and puri- 
fication. 

Sewage. 

Common household examples of com- 
pounds, solutions, crystalline sub- 
stances. 

Study of fuels, illuminants, and vari- 
ous other kinds of oxidation agents. 

Fire extinguishers. 

Use of various kinds of thermometers 
and value of this practice in house- 
hold processes. 

Ventilation. 

Heating systems. 

Processes of cooking foods and apply- 
ing heat in various other processes. 

Heat appliances. 

Fireless cookers and refrigerators. 

Use of various acids, bases, and salts in 
the homes. 
Baking powders. 
Washing powders, etc. 



258 



Principles 



Metals. 

Laws of mechanical applicances in the 
home, such as — 

Levers. 

Wheel and axle. 

Pulleys. 

Screws. 

Air appliances. 



Electricity: 

The electric cell. 

The motor for heating; for lighting. 



Practice 

Study and comparison of cleaning 
agents. 

Preservation of various kinds of house- 
hold materials. 

Use and care of metals in the home. 

Use and care of mechanical apphances 
in the home to illustrate the prin- 
ciple taught. 

Levers — scissors, pliers, can-opener, 
nut-cracker, fork and knife, sugar 
tongs, etc. 

Wheel and Axle — cofifee-mill, wringer, 
bread-mixer. 

Pulleys — window pulleys. 

Screw — meat-chopper, sealer, faucet. 

Air appliances — force pump water 
system, vacuum cleaners, fire ex- 
tinguisher, siphon, trap, gas meter. 

Household electrical appliances for 
heating, cooking, lighting, and 
mechanical work — their use and 
care. 



homemaking vi-b 
Dietetics 

The basis for this course shall be the food requirements of the 
body, studying, first, the food needs of the high school girl herself, 
the problem nearest at hand, and of more vital interest to the girl. 
From this as a starting point, other members of the family are 
added, one at a time to study special needs, then adaptation made 
to fit the advancing complexity of the problem. The type of meals 
planned should be those within the income of the actual people in 
the community. 



Principles 

Nutrition requirements of the body in 

health. 
Composition of foods. 
Relation of cost of foods to food value . 
Food for children and the aged. 



EflFect of various conditions of age, 
activity, etc., on food requirement. 



Practice 

Study of composition of foods. 
Calculation and preparation of diets 
for various ages and various condi- 
tions of income. 
The following groups are suggested as 
a basis for planning or preparing 
meals: 
Group I — High school girls. 
Group II — High school girl. 
Brother — ten years old. 
Mother. 
Father. 
Grandmother. 



259 



Principles 
Effect of abnormal body conditions. 



Effect of abnormal body conditions on 
food requirement. 



Practice 

Group III — High school girl. 

Brother^ten years old. 

Mother. 

Father. 

Grandmother. 

Baby sister — two years old. 
Group IV — Nutrition class of school 

children. 
Day's meals planned and prepared 

for some one in the family for the 

following disorders: 
Constipation. Anemia. 
Diarrhea. Indigestion. 



Child Care 



Comparative study of the anatomy 
and physiology of infants and chil- 
dren and adjustment in care and 
feeding. 



Every-day care of the babies and 
small children — 
Bathing. 

Dressing and kind of clothes. 
Feeding, sleeping. 
Air and exercise. 
Playtime training. 



Home Nursing 



A study of physiology applied to ab- 
normal physical conditions. 

Principles of home and community hy- 
giene applied to abnormal physical 
conditions. 



Things to have ready for sickness. 

Care of the sick-room and sick-room 
appliances. 

Beds and bedmaking. 
Personal care of the invalid. 
Feeding the sick. 

Home treatments and how to give 
them. 



homemaking vii 

Household Management 

The course in Household Management is planned to give the stu- 
dent an appreciation of the place of the home in the community, 
an understanding of the problems of running a home, and the 
organization for the most efficient conduct. In this course are 
brought together the problems developing to rather full completion 
in earlier courses and built up as one big rounded homemaking job. 

260 



Principles 

Business management. 

Keeping accounts. 

Checking supplies. 

Inventories, requisitions, and reports. 

Rendering bills. 

The family budget. 

Economics. 

Family hfe — what it is for; what 

value family is to the individual, 

and vice versa. 



Community life. 

Responsibility of family to the com- 
munity. 

A study of local communities and their 
general organization. 

Study of possible active organizations. 

Purpose. 

Dues and how spent. 

Who is eligible. 

Approximate membership. 

Probable effect in community. 

Standards of living. 

Labor in the home. 



Prevention of the cause of destruction 

by dirt. 
Systematic planning of household 

duties with and without service. 
Laundering. 



Practice 

Practice in classrooms. 

Business practice. 

Keeping such accounts as work af- 
forded. 

Making requisitions and reports. 

Making inventories. 

Checking supplies. 

Rendering bills. 

Working out, as far as possible, family 
budget in one or more phases. 

Study of the local problem of house- 
keeping. 

Care of house and equipment and sup- 
pHes. 

Covering care of floors, walls, win- 
dows, woodwork, and all material 
making up the structure. 

Covering the care of the equipment 
such as rugs and carpets, hangings, 
furniture, utensils, dishes, silver. 

Study of the processes involved in this 
care. 

To set standard time. 

To find easiest and best and quickest 
way. 

Organization of the household activi- 
ties and carrying them out on sched- 
ule time. 

Laundering of general clothing. 

Laundering of special fabrics, such as 
wool, silk, lace, etc. 

Study of the local community life and 
its organization. 

Special study of active organizations 
and their effect in this community 
and how we can help. 



homemaking viii 

Advanced Dressmaking and Costume Design 

This course is aimed to give the pupil high ideals of dress from 
the art and design point of view, to give her a specific foundation of 
judgment for selecting the type of garment that will be distinctive 
in style, exquisite in fabric, and efficient in construction. It is also 
hoped that there will be aroused an interest in textile designing, 
costume designing, and high-grade dressmaking that may help her 
in the selection of her wage-earning vocation. 

261 



A very simple draft may be introduced in this course if the 
teacher deems it necessary, although if the principles of design have 
been thoroughly adapted to the use of the commercial patterns, 
the teaching of drafting, as such, would not be required. 

It is suggested that for the study of fabrics large pieces — from 
one-half yard to one yard length — be obtained of as many kinds 
of fabrics, beautiful in texture and design, as is possible. Special 
funds may be gathered for this purpose. 



Principles 

History. 

Principles of design applied to design- 
ing with paper and fabrics. 

Principles of draping and fashioning 
with paper and fabrics. 

Principles of making patterns. 

Study of fabrics to be used for after- 
noon, special and evening gowns, 
and wraps. 

Principles of designing for dyeing 
fabrics to be used in construction for 
special purposes, school plays, and 
pageants. 

Principles of construction appro- 
priate for costume for special occa- 
sions, for school plays, and when 
the dressmaking forms are to be 
used. 

Study of equipments necessary for the 
type of work in this subject. 

Use of illustrative fabrics in as large 
pieces as available. 



Principles of design applied to exhibits 
of the clothing standards for criti- 
cism of finished garments. 



Practice 

1. The study of historic costume to be 
used as a foundation for sketching 
and designing patterns for present- 
day dress. To be worked out in 
paper or soft fabric. 

2. Use of the dressmaking form in 
construction of a fitted lining to be 
used as the foundation for draping 
and designing. 

3. Use of paper and light weight 
fabric in designing and draping cos- 
tumes. 

4. The designing of patterns to be 
used in construction — 

5. Garments to be constructed 

(a) Afternoon dress. 

(b) Evening dress. 

(c) Wrap. 

(d) Graduating dress. 

(e) Special costumes. 

6. Study of special fabrics, new 
fabrics in market, with attention to 
design, texture, use, and methods of 
manufacture. 

7. Dyeing of materials to be used in 
construction of garments or for 
special costumes. 

(a) In the piece. 

(b) Block print. 

(c) Batik. 

8. Class criticism of finished products. 

9. Arrangement of exhibit of class 

work. 

10. Trips to museum to study exhibit 
of fabrics; garments; study of 
traveling exhibits to be obtained 
from the museums. 



262 



SUGGESTED HOME PROJECTS 

homemaking i 

Elementary Foods 



Meal preparation for the family : 

Planning. 

Buying food. 

Care of such food. 

Cooking. 

Serving. 

Clearing away. 
Food preservation: 

Planning year's supply of fruit, 
vegetables, meats, eggs. 

Purchase. 

Preparation. 

Storage. 
Gardening : 

Planning garden to supply family 



needs for summer's consumption 
and preservation. 
Harvesting. 
Care, 

Care and storage of all household food 
supplies for immediate and future 
consumption. 

Study of fuels of the household, 
amount used, cost, economical use, 
added equipment to increase econ- 
omy or comfort. 

Care of the kitchen and dining rooms 
and the equipment. 

Use of Girl Scout or Camp Fire or- 
ganization as possible outlet. 



HoMEMAKING II 

Elementary Clothing and Applied Design 



Wardrobe of one member of a 
family: 

Inventory of garments on hand. 

Planning replenishing. 

Selection of ready-to-wear, gar- 
ments. 

Construction of new garments. 

Mending and care. 

Cost in money and time. 
Charge of household textiles : 

Inventory. 



Replenishment by purchase. 

Care. 

Seasonal storage. 

Repair. 

Construction of new. 
Family mending. 
Clothing for families in need. 
Assembling organization and care 

of equipment for family sewing. 



HoMEMAKING III 

Luncheon and Special Cookery 



Planning meals and refreshment; cal- 
culation of costs and food values. 
Buying food, organizing work, and 
serving for any of the following: 
Reception or tea. 
Picnic. 
Club or society supper. 



Party. 

Church supper. 
Box lunch for traveling. 
Study of local market conditions. 
Studying the seasonal foods in mar- 
ket-season, price, source, place in 
the meal. 



HoMEMAKING IV 

Dressmaking and Millinery 



Renovation projects of family 
wardrobe — 
Planning. 
Construction. 

Designing — combination of ma- 
terial. 
Reports. 
Millinery for season for self or 
member of family. 



3. Child's outfit for season. 

4. Care of knitted garments for family. 

5. Renovation and remodeling for mis- 

sionary boxes. 

6. The clothing budget for an indi- 

vidual. 

7. Care of woolen and silken garments 

of the household, including 
cleaning, pressing, and repair. 



263 



homemaking v 
House Planning and Decoration 



1. Layout of grounds for garden, flow- 

ers, and house, with costs, sea- 
sonal changes, and time spent. 

2. Replanning of pupil's home to meet 

the desired results for beauty, 
sanitation, and convenience. 

3. Plan for rearrangement of pupil's 



own room, decoration, furniture, 
hangings, and arrangement. 
4. Household furnishings: 
Bedding. 
Towels. 
Curtains. 

Furniture, carpets, and rugs. 
Magazines and books. 



homemaking vi-a 
Household Science 



1. Care and repair of any household 

apphances. 

2. Care of household wastes. 

3. Assembling, storage and care of 

cleaning equipment for the house. 

4. Dyeing. 

5. Planning and overseeing the con- 



struction of simple devices to re- 
duce time and labor of housewife 
and improve housekeeping meth- 
ods. 
Assembhng and use of agents for 
simple household tests for food or 
clothing. 



homemaking vi-b 
Dietetics: Home Nursing and Child Care 



Caring for a young child. 

Foods and meals. 

Bathing and dressing. 

Play teaching. 
Caring for an invahd. 

Food preparation. 

Clothing. 

Room, 

Outdoor air. 

Amusements. 



Planning the family dietaries for 
normal conditions. 

Planning dietaries for individual 
members of family who need spe- 
cial diets. 

Assembling and use of materials for 
medicine chest and emergency 
cabinet. 



homemaking vii 
Household Management 



Preparing family budget and keep- 
ing accounts. 

Preparing personal budget and 
keeping personal accounts. 

Storage of household staple sup- 
plies. 
Food. 
Textiles. 
Cleaning materials. 

Laundering: 

Assembling laundering supplies 
and equipment. 



Removal of stains. 

Organizing and supervising work. 

5. Organization of family household 

work, with attention to service of 
maid. 

6. Time tests for specific duties in the 

household for standardization. 

7. Study of some local active organiza- 

tion. 
Becoming a member. 



264 



homemaking viii 
Advanced Dressmaking and Costume Design 

1, The wardrobe of a girl planning to 4. Family clothing budget. 



go to college. 

2. Complete graduating outfit. 

3. Little brother's wardrobe — with 

emphasis upon remodeling larger 
clothing into small boy's suit, 
tailoring problems. 



Original designs for fashion maga- 
zines to be submitted to com- 
mercial magazines or papers. 

Original designs for costumes for 
school play or pageant. 



(Syllabus ends here) 



Reading Sources 

The standard of technological content tends to follow the texts 
and references used. Accordingly, a brief summary of reading 
sources by subjects is appended. 



Elementary Foods 

Greer — Text-book of Cooking. ... 28 
No other book was reported more 

than four times. 
Twelve others. 



Elementary Clothing and Design 

Baldt— Clothing for Women 22 

Kinne and Cooley — Shelter and 

clothing 16 

McGowan and Waite — Textiles 
and clothing 6 

Eleven others. 



Lunch Room and Special Cookery 

Farmer — Boston Cooking School 
Cook Book 9 

Smith — Recipes for Fifty 8 

Nine others. 



House Planning and Decoration 
Kinne and Cooley — Shelter and 

Clothing 7 

Quinn — Planning and Furnishing 

a Home 6 

White — Successful Houses and 

How to Build Them 5 

Twelve others. 



Household Science 

Lynde — Physics of the Household . 1 1 
Snell — Elementary Household 

Chemistry 8 

Eleven others. 

Dietetics, Home Nursing, Child 
Care 

Rose — Feeding the Family 16 

Akens — Home Nurse's Handbook . 1 1 
Willard and Gillette — Dietetics for 

High School 9 

Twelve others. 

Home Management 
Taber — Business of the Household 13 

Balderston — Housewifery 8 

Fredericks — The New Housekeep- 
ing 5 

Seven others. 

Advanced Dressmaking and Cos- 
tume Design 

Baldt — Clothing for Women 17 

Fales — Dressmaking 9 

Seven others. 

Other Subjects in Homemaking 

Balderston — Laundering 5 

Reeves — Home Millinery 5 

Eighteen others. 



265 



CHAPTER XVIII 
BRIEF SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 

ALTHOUGH the foregoing study reveals considerable defi- 
/-% ciencies as well as merits in the present organization of means 
to vocational education in the rural districts of the State, 
yet, on the whole, the policy of the Division of Vocational and Ex- 
tension Education appears sufficiently liberal and far sighted, its 
organization sufficiently flexible, and its activity such that major 
recommendations made by the surveyor in the course of the study 
have been in some measure anticipated, and steps to the enlarge- 
ment of opportunity for boys and girls in the country already taken 
or definitely in contemplation. With the hope of giving reenforce- 
ment to the division in the development of its progressive policy a 
brief summary of more important needs is here given. 

Teaching for Vocational Choice 
Fundamental to the realization for the country boy of anything 
like democratic equality of opportunity in finding himself in voca- 
tion and achieving a reasonable preparation for intelligent entrance 
upon a life of service, is a system of prevocational education and 
vocational guidance. With all openings in vocation accessible to 
the rural community center in which the school may be located, the 
pupil should have reasonably intimate acquaintance. In them, so 
far as it be possible to do so, he should be given chance of repre- 
sentative participation, in order to test out the aptitudes and 
interests which may be in him for such possible pursuits. Equally 
he is entitled as an American citizen to discover the opportunities 
in, and his capacity for, a large range of occupations to which ordin- 
arily the school is by no means accessible. In the first case obser- 
vation, vocational participation, type training, and instruction in 

266 



school, are possibilities. In the second case they are not, with the 
exception of certain type training and instruction in handicraft and 
commercial vocations. But, in so far as the rural vocations and the 
village industrial occupations accessible to the school possess ele- 
ments of likeness to urban and other remote types of vocation, to 
that extent informational teaching by book and illustration may be 
made meaningful through comparison and contrast with what the 
pupil has learned at first hand of vocational opportunities and the 
requirements of vocations. By the use, then, of community voca- 
tional resources to the full and by supplementation through inform- 
ational studies of vocations the school can very greatly enlarge the 
basis of experience in the pupil necessary to the choice of his life 
pursuit. 

In the case of agriculture the need for prevocational instruction 
and guidance is somewhat less exigent than in the case of the other 
fields of vocation — industrial, commercial, and professional. The 
farm and the country home inevitably provide some experience of 
vocational requirements in those fields and the kind of Hfe implied 
in the taking up of such pursuits. But much can be done to enrich 
the field of knowledge and experience here. In the case of the 
individual the farm and the home are seldom fully representative 
of the exigencies or opportunities of country work and living. But 
if the resources of the community be opened to the individual, the 
scope of his experience may often be made to include much that is 
representative of what the life of the country has to offer and of his 
fitness for it. Since agriculture includes vocations in which immedi- 
ate experience is impossible, a supplementation of observation and 
participation in the work of the farm and of the home through 
formal instruction and readings is needed. 

Actual test and experience for boys may be furnished in the 
mechanic trades through typical shop teaching of the sort proposed 
for the general industrial schools by the specialist of the division in 
charge of such schools. But that equipment can be such, and 
teaching under conditions so aptly vocational, as to make it func- 
tional in high degree as preparation for entrance upon the job is, in 
the country school, doubtful. In the case of trades and professions 
carried on under the system of "machinofacture," which is so 

267 



typical of industrial life in the larger centers, it is doubtful that 
much more than informational guidance can be given, with such 
opportunity for observation as the immediate or nearby communi- 
ties afford. The same statement may be made with regard to 
commercial and professional occupations open to both men and 
women. In the clerical and office occupations it may be possible 
to provide actual test of ability and even some development of 
ability, but actual vocational work of an effective sort through the 
agency of the public school is doubtful. Having given, however, 
to the boy or girl a basis of intelligent choice of occupation, the 
public school has in large part discharged its duty. And without 
that basis no scheme of vocational education whether in the occu- 
pations of country, village, or city can be made truly democratic 
and effective. 

With respect to the single vocation of the homekeeper it appears 
to the surveyor that preparation is so universally a need that every 
girl may reasonably be obligated to demonstrate the possession of 
the fundamental skills and knowledges necessary to the home- 
keeper, or else to pursue a course directly preparatory. Guidance 
to election of allied pursuits may in some measure, of course, be an 
appropriate accompaniment of such instruction and training. With 
respect to other vocational openings the girl may be placed upon 
the same basis as the boy, but with respect to education in the 
duties, obligations, and opportunities of home life a compulsory 
requirement is quite as justifiable from the social and individual 
standpoints as compulsory requirements in respect to the instru- 
mental studies of the elementary school curriculum. That, for any 
long time, the requirement should be set for high school pupils 
only, the minority in all communities, is not to be acknowledged. 
Whatever the "fundamentals" may turn out to be they should 
ultimately be made a part of the elementary school curriculum for 
girls. 

Now the surveyor is keenly aware that the installation of an 
adequate system of prevocational teaching in the rural schools is a 
matter presenting great administrative difficulties. The sugges- 
tion of the junior high school organization for the rural districts 
appears to offer a solution. But the organization of the junior high 

268 



school in a center limited in resources of support for schools, in 
resources of vocational contact, in enrolment, is far from being as 
easy as is the case in those larger centers in which the organization 
has achieved its notable successes. A range of departmentalized 
studies for the purpose of self-discovery on the part of pupils indi- 
cates a size of plant and staff that is out of the question for the 
smaller centers. An equalization of the burden of support through 
State aid and a larger unit of taxation, and equalization of admin- 
istrative responsibility through a new intermediate unit, may ease 
the situation measurably, but, in the opinion of the surveyor, they 
will not make possible the adoption of the "Rochester plan" of pre- 
vocational education in the rural districts of the State. The em- 
ployment on a twelve months' basis of specially qualified teachers 
to work to the end of vocational guidance in the upper elementary 
grades and possibly in the first year of the established high school 
is a conceivable development through which a beginning of the 
establishment of the selective principle may be inaugurated. Such 
teachers must, of course, possess professional and technical qualifi- 
cations of greater range than is now required for the departmental 
teachers of either junior or senior high schools. A consideration 
of the necessity for and the possibilities of prevocational educa- 
tional education as a basis to any truly functional vocational edu- 
cation for country boys and girls is earnestly recommended to the 
division and the State Department of Education. 

Following the establishment of such a system there is indicated 
a very considerable increase of the number of schools offering voca- 
tional teaching appropriate to preparation in the vocations of the 
country and the village. While hardly one school in ten offers 
anything at all in the way of vocational education to country boys 
and girls, even such as make their way into the high school as regu- 
lar matriculants, but a minimum of opportunity is offered to such 
as might profit by it. 

Mechanic Arts 

The schools already designated schools of "agriculture, mechanic 
arts, and homemaking," as has been noted, offer nothing in the way 
of mechanic arts teaching. A beginning is indicated here. There 

269 



is a large function of guidance that could be accomplished in the 
beginnings of such teaching, and a distinct preparatory objective 
in several directions. The open country still has its mechanics and 
artisans, with whom the machine equipment plays a minor part. 
To boys who would be carpenters, masons, painters, garage mecha- 
nics, etc., valuable preparatory experience under the ''stay-at- 
home" organization of the country or village high school is a possi- 
bility. 

Closer Adaptation 
The reorganization of existing courses both in agriculture and 
in homemaking and the establishment of new courses in order that 
the most significant teaching may reach the greatest number calls 
for no revolution in the present administrative scheme. Nor does 
the insistence upon qualification, professional and technical, of 
teachers in terms of the job which they have to do rather than in 
general terms imply anything radical. Nor, again, the continuous 
expansion of opportunities for improvement of teachers in service, 
except as such in part implies the need for more intimate and fre- 
quent supervisory service on the plan of some unit intermediate 
between the State and the high school district. 



Travel Allowances 

Increased allotment for travel to teachers in the supervision of 
the home work of pupils enrolled in vocational courses is important. 
It has been noted that project supervision is still far from on a 
satisfactory basis, at the same time that success in it is central to 
the development of the wise vocational policy of the division. 
Teachers must be free on the financial side to undertake the central 
activity of their calling with the utmost effectiveness. A liberal 
standard allowance to meet the needs of the most inaccessible 
school should be discovered, the payment assumed by the State, 
and the teachers then held strictly to the use of their time in accord- 
ance with administrative requirements. One cause of the most 
conspicuous weakness in present teaching in vocation in the coun- 
try high schools would thereby be removed. 

270 



Vocational Curricula 
More attention should be given to the curriculum for country- 
boys and girls enrolled in vocational courses. It should be organ- 
ized with reference to the civic and social obligations of rural living, 
and to the achievement of those intellectual insights and aesthetic 
and recreational enjoyments which the leisure and the intimate 
personal contacts of country living afford. Much restricted and 
careful selection in mathematics and expansion of the studies of 
country social and economic problems now found in a few schools 
would strengthen it. Music is an important resource of the iso- 
lated home and should not be overlooked. The love of good read- 
ing is another. Certainly the present curriculum, so called, can be 
much improved. It is a hybrid propaedeutic — a cross between the 
academic college preparatory and the vocational, without the 
merits of the one for the few or the merits of the other for the many. 

Publicity 

It is the opinion of the surveyor that the ends of vocational edu- 
cation in the country schools would be measurably served by a 
greater publicity on the part of the division with respect to the 
opportunities that it offers, the philosophy which guides it, and the 
nature of the policy under which it promotes the development of 
vocational education. It should do something to overcome public 
inertia and the sometimes active misrepresentation of those in 
whose eyes it appears a rival. 



271 



CHAPTER XIX 

OBSERVATION OF TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 
IN STATE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE 

THE same system of observation and record was used in the 
State schools as in the high school departments. Four of 
the six schools were visited and the work of 14 teachers 
observed. It is to be noted that the teacher in the State school is 
in considerable measure a specialist, devoting his time to a single 
aspect or division of agriculture, such as animal husbandry, fruit 
growing, farm crops and soils, poultry husbandry, repair and con- 
struction work, etc. Within such fields, in the judgment of the 
observer, the technical acquirements of State school teachers 
appear in general superior to those of the high school teachers 
responsible for all of the several aspects. Perhaps as a consequence 
of the technical specialization a tendency to subject treatment 
rather than to pupil adaptation appears also more marked in 
teachers of the State schools. The technical expert is more in 
evidence, the professional teacher less so than in the case of the 
high schools. Yet, perhaps because of superior technical resource, 
the teaching, in general, in the State schools tends to rank with 
the teaching seen in the high schools. The judgment is made in 
the absence of a detailed record of the schooling and experience of 
pupils dealt with. But the following generalization with respect to 
them is well founded. Pupils in the State schools are more mature, 
in the maximum of greater school and vocational experience, than 
high school pupils, in the minimum of less. There is a smaller pro- 
portion of farm boys ; but of those farm boys a larger proportion is 
immediately engaged in actual earning in agriculture than is the 
case in the high school. The range of variability is increased by 
the presence in the regular courses of numbers of former soldiers in 

272 



process of rehabilitation. The State school teacher has greater 
need of professional insight and understanding than the high school 
teacher. For the most experienced of his pupils his teaching is well 
adapted — for the least experienced it appears to have little adapta- 
tion. 

Sixteen ''lessons" were observed, classifying as follows: Poultry 
husbandry, 1; vegetable gardening, 1; farm mechanics and shop 
work, 2; farm crops, 2; agricultural chemistry, 1 ; animal husbandry, 
2; dairying, 1; fruit growing, 3; agricultural engineering, 1; farm 
management, 2; classroom lessons, 11; laboratory lessons, 3; shop 
lessons, 1; field lessons, 1. 

In view of the season of instruction, October to April, field work 
tends to a minimum. In one school the director stated that no 
attempt was made at field observation and practice, but chief 
emphasis given to classroom instruction, inasmuch as six months 
were spent by pupils on farms where little of technology could be 
taught under the remote and infrequent supervision which results 
from the attempt to follow up pupils in all parts of the State. 

The main topics of lessons observed are as follows : 



Poultry Husbandry 

Feeding for egg production 

Vegetable Gardening 
Onion growing 

Farm Mechanics and Shop 
Qualities of lumber 
Link forging 

Farm Crops 
Barley 
Standard rotations 

Agricultural Chemistry 
The salts of iron; Bordeaux 



Animal Husbandry 
Feeding horses 
Ration for swine 

Dairying 

Ice-cream making 

Fruit Growing 
Orchard layout 
Morphology of the apple 
Decay of stored apples 

Agricultural Engineering 
Running a traverse 

Farm Management 

Seasonal price fluctuation 
Crop rotation 



In general the size of classes is well adapted to classroom instruc- 
tion. The shop class had just enough equipment for all. The 
field class, though divided into two sections, was too large for the 
effective participation of all members, and the class in making ice- 
cream was at least double the number that could work effectively. 
1 8 273 



Distribution of Attendance 



Number pupils 
present 


Total 


Freshmen 


Juniors 


Seniors 


Mixed 


6 


1 


1 








8 


1 




1 






11 


1 








1 


12 


1 




1 






14 


1 








1 


15 


4 


1 


1 


1 


1 


16 


1 


1 








17 


2 


1 




1 




19 


1 




1 






20 


1 






1 




22 


1 








1 


23 


1 






1 






16 


4 


4 


4 


4 



Attendance at laboratory lessons 11-17-14 

Attendance at field lesson 22 

Attendance at shop lesson 15 

Special Provisions or Deficiencies in Economy of Time or Effort 

None 9 

Ready in all particulars 1 

Teacher and majority of class late 4 

Unready 3 

Time Wasted Preliminary to Teaching 

5 minutes or less 8 

7 minutes 2 

1 5 minutes 1 

25 minutes 1 



The waste of time was conspicuous in one school only. In every 
lesson the pupils wandered in from five to twenty minutes after the 
beginning of the hour, and two teachers were very late in arriving. 



Aims of Lesson 

Stated to class 4 

Told to observer 6 

Judged by observer 6 

To cover the ground 2 

To test knowledge 2 



Aims of Lesson {Continued) 

To develop principles 2 

To apply principles 3 

To give information 2 

To make a plan 3 

To make a product 2 



274 



Attitude of Pupils 



Attentive (eagerly interested) 

Orderly 

Indifferent 

Disorderly 



Class- 
room 


Labora- 
tory 


Shop 


Field 


1 











6 


2 


1 


1 


2 


1 








2 












Tot^ 



1 
10 

3 
2 





Portion of 


Class Kept E 


>USY 






Classroom 


Laboratory 


Shop 


Field 


All 


2 


1 


1 





H 


1 











\ 


1 











Ya 


2 


1 








y2 











1 


X 


3 


1 








1 

To 


2 












Activity of the Class 

Classroom Other 

Active in questioning 1 

Active in criticism and questioning 6 

Active in contribution, criticism, questioning 1 

Not active in any of those forms 4 4 



Assignment 



Oral 8 

Written 1 

None 7 

End of lesson 9 

Time given one minute or less 7 

Time given two minutes 1 

Time given three minutes 1 



Record made by pupils 2 

Group assignments (all alike) 9 

Text reading 5 

Suggestive guidance to study given . 2 

Varied reference 2 

Problem 1 

Project 1 





Planning 


BY Teacher 








Classroom 


Other 


Total 


Clear evidence 


4 
3 
4 


1 

2 

2 


5 


Slight evidence 


5 


No evidence 


6 







275 



Preparation by Teacher 



Definite preparation . 
Slight preparation . . 
No preparation 




Preparation by Class 



Well prepared . . . . 
Some preparation . 
No preparation . . . 




5 

1 

10 



The showing in preparation by the class is poor. 
System and Unity in Lessons 



Clearly evident . 
Slightly evident 
Not present. . . . 




12 
1 
3 





Type of Lesson 








Topic discussion 






8 





8 


Review 






2 





2 


Lecture 






1 





1 


Exercise 









5 


5 



The topic discussion prevails in classroom as it did in the high 
school. In laboratory, shop, and field lessons_, the required direc- 
tion-following exercise was the only type observed. 

Procedure (Classroom) -t, 

^ ' Frequencies 

Question and answer 10 

Telling 8 

Note taking by pupils 2 

Blackboard work by pupils 3 

The tendency to lecture, though only one typical lecture dicta- 
tion was noted, is strong among the specialists of the State schools. 
Yet, in contrast made with observation of the same type of schools 
in a study six years previous, including two of those of the survey, 
the increase in pupil activity is marked. In method at least the 
State schools copy the college less than formerly. 

276 



CONCRETENESS (ClASSROOm) 

Objective illustration, e. g., specimens in hands of pupils 3 

Charts 1 

Reference to pupils ' experience 6 

None 2 

Initiative, Evaluation, Organization (Classroom) 

Attention given to initiative 

Attention given to evaluation 1 

Attention given to organization 2 

Attention given to initiative and evaluation 1 

Attention given to evaluation and organization 2 

Attention given to all three 1 

Attention given to none 4 

Other Lessons — Procedures 

Group teaching primarily Individual teaching primarily 

Field lessons 1 Shop lessons 1 

Laboratory lessons 2 Laboratory lessons 1 

Procedures Procedures 

Direction and practice 3 Demonstration, direction, and 

practice 2 

Speed and Accuracy 

Initiative, Evaluation, Organization 

Attention given to accuracy 2 

Attention given to organization 2 

Rating of Teachers by Observer 

No. Percent 

Very high grade teaching 2 above normal 35f 

Superior teaching 3 

Normally good teaching 6 42* 

Inferior teaching 3 below normal 21 f 

Very low grade teaching 

The small numbers make percentage ratings doubtful, yet ap- 
proximately 40 percent of all teachers in agriculture in the State 
schools were observed. The proportion of exceptionally good 
teaching is somewhat higher in the State schools than in the high 
schools, but it appears that the two groups of teachers do not rate 
very differently. Both are, on the whole, good teachers and supe- 
rior to the run in secondary schools. The faults of the two are much 
the same. In organization of other than classroom work the high 
school teachers appear slightly superior. 

277 



Farm Practice Requirements 

Rehabilitation students are, for the most part, kept at the school 
for a third term of instruction in which practical work on the school 
farm plays a part. Regularly enrolled pupils not under federal 
control are assigned to employment on farms in various parts of the 
State for six months in each of two years, sometimes the home farm, 
more often another. The type of farm, after the first year, is 
chosen, if possible, to conform to the special interests of the students, 
e. g., dairy for one, fruit growing for another. 

A systematic procedure in study and record of the farm employ- 
ment is used, of which an example is submitted through the courtesy 
of Director Knapp, of Cobleskill. Teachers are assigned to visit 
employed boys during the summer. On account of the very heavy 
expense in time and money involved in the attempt to follow up 
boys scattered over so large a State, the visiting amounts to little 
more than inspection on one or two occasions during the season. 
Under the system boys get valuable practical experience, but it 
hardly deserves the appellation "directed farm experience" from 
an educative standpoint. The example follows: 

General Instructions 

1. Keep a diary of the summer's work according to the printed 
form furnished. 

2. Keep an accurate record of all field crops grown on the farm 
according to outline. Use separate sheet for each field of each crop, 
as where there are two or more fields of corn use two or more crop 
record sheets. 

3. Keep a daily Labor record of all work done on the farm. List 
and total each day, carrying previous total to date forward each day. 

4. Wherever a farm map does not exist, such a map, giving areas, 
boundaries, and dimensions, must be drawn by the student, and 
where such a map exists, he should make a copy of it within sixty 
days of date of arrival. 

5. A sketch giving the accurate and actual building arrangement, 
interior and exterior, shall be made by the student within ninety 
days of arrival. Distances should be measured with tape or meas- 
uring stick. The cooperation of the owner should be secured. 

278 



6. Types of soils must be studied in connection with the work . Make 
use of County Soil Map if one exists — otherwise from observation. 

7. A standard list of operations will be given you. Check with 
one check all that you have done. Double check all that you are 
proficient in. 

8. Students on specialized dairy farms must keep a dairy record. 

9. The records must be kept in order and up to date ready for 
inspection at any time by any member of the instruction staff. 
The record will be used on your return to school to make a summary 
of your summer's work. 

10. Remember that the farmer has not hired you to run his farm. 
Therefore, keep your eyes open, your head and hands busy, and your 
mouth shut. 

"Do not put off until tomorrow that which should be done to- 
day." 

Farm Summary 

State 

Operator P. O. address 

Landlord P. O. address 

Township Soil types 

Topography 

Miles to town Miles from shipping station 

Acres owned by landlord 

Farm area Owned by operator 

Cash rented Share rented 

Woods Woods pastured 

Other pasture not tillable Tillable area 

Permanent pasture tillable Pasture in rotation 

Total pasture Waste, roads, farmstead, etc 



Crop Record Sheet 
To be kept for each field or each crop on the farm 

1. Crop 

2. Acreage Date of plowing 

3. Dates of preparation and implements used 

4. Variety Purpose 

5. Date of planting 

6. Method of planting 

7. Rate of planting 

8. Dates of cultivation (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 

9. Treatment during season 

10. Date of harvesting 

11. Method of harvesting 

12. Twine used pounds 

13. Yields in bushels or tons 

14. Previous crop grown on this field 

Remarks: Soil types, etc 



279 



Standard List of Farm Operations 



1. Milking 


51. 


Operating grain binder 


2. Feeding, dairy cattle, yearlings. 


52. 


Operating com harvester 


calves 


53. 


Operating ensilage cutter 


3. Grooming 


54. 


Operating side delivery rake 


4. Fitting for show 


55. 


Operating dump rake 


5. Care of stables — disinfecting 


56. 


Operating hay loader 


6. Whitewash 


57. 


Operating hay fork sling 


7. Mix grain 


58. 


Operating potato digger 


8. Cleaning cows for milking 


59. 


Operating potato hiller 


9. Drive horses 


60. 


Operating bean harvester 


10. Harness 


61. 


Operating threshing machine 


1 1 . Feed and care for horses 


62. 


1. Feeding 


12. Same for sheep and swine 




2. Bagger 


13. Care of 100 or more laying hens 




3. Stack 


14. Care and feeding of growing chicks 




4. Stacked wind blower 


15. Care of breeding pens 


63. 


Operating corn shredder 


16. Selecting laying hens 


64. 


Operating corn husker and shred- 


17. Running incubators 




der combined 


18. Candhng, cleaning, grading, and 


65. 


Operating fanning mill 


packing of eggs 


66. 


(a) Pruning fruit trees and small 


19. Cleaning and disinfecting 




fruits 


20. Sticking and debraining 




(b) Training grapes 


21. Picking, dry and scald 


67. 


Planting of fruit trees and plants 


22. Drawing 


68. 


Spraying — (1) fruit; (2) farm crops 


23. CuUing fowls 


69. 


Tillage of orchard or crops 


24. Culling cockerels 


70. 


Mulching 


25. Culling pullets 


71. 


Thinning 


26. Plowing — Walking plow, Sulky 


72. 


Digging borers 


plow 


73. 


Preparation for picking fruit 


27. Manure spreader 


74. 


Picking fruit 


28. Hand spreading 


75. 


Grading and packing fruit 


29. Disking 


76. 


Marketing and storage of fruits 


30. Harrowing 


77. 


Treatment of seed potatoes 


31. Running grain drill 


78. 


Treatment of seed grain 


32. Com planter 


79. 


Treatment of small seeds 


33. Potato planter 


80. 


Mixing spray materials and dis- 


34. Cabbage planter 




infectants — list 


35. Wheelbarrow seeder 


81. 


Weeding lettuce, onions, and gar- 


36. Lime and fertilizer sower 




den crops 


37. Hand seeder 


82. 


Transplanting garden crops — list 


38. Hand corn planter 


83. 


Hoeing and cultivating garden 


39. Hand drill 




crops 


40. Cultivator 


84. 


Spraying and treatment for dis- 


41. Hoe 




eases and insects — Hst 


42. Single horse cultivator 


85. 


Blanching celery and cauHflower 


43. Two horse cultivator, single and 


86. 


Harvesting and grading garden 


double row cultivator 




crops 


44. Weeder 


87. 


Packing and marketing garden 


45. Roller 




crops 


46. Surfacer 


88. 


Packing, storing and marketing 


47. Plank drag 




of root crops 


48. Mowing by hand 


89. 


Operating stationary gas engine 


49. Mowing by machine 


90. 


Operating stationary kerosene 


50. Reaping by machine 




engine 



280 



Standard List of Farm Operations — {Continued) 



91. Operating gasoline tractor 

92. Operating kerosene tractor 

93. Operating hydraulic ram 

94. Operating pneumatic water 

tem, make 

95. Operating electric motor 



sys- 



96. Operating motor car, kind 

97. Operating ditching machine, kind 

98. Laying tile drain 

99. Running levels for tile drains 

100. Staking out drains for ditching 



19 



281 



CHAPTER XX 

OBSERVATION OF TEACHING OF HOMEMAKING 
IN STATE SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE 

BY A SERIES of coincidences in the illness of teachers, atten- 
dance by pupils at a meeting, and the giving of examinations 
on the day of visit, the surveyor found opportunity to visit 
only seven lessons in homemaking in the State schools, and those in 
two schools only. Five teachers were observed. To a less extent, 
perhaps, than in agriculture, teachers of homemaking in the State 
schools are specialists. Nevertheless, as compared with teachers 
of homemaking in the high schools, they are specialists. Courses 
in sewing, textiles, millinery, etc., are handled by one teacher, in 
cooking, nutrition, dietetics, etc., by another, and still further 
divisions occur. The surveyor was impressed with the technical 
efficiency and resourcefulness of State school teachers. Nor on the 
professional side did the few seen exhibit serious lack. On the 
whole, the small amount of work observed was markedly superior 
to the norm observed in the high schools. State school teachers 
appear relatively a picked lot. 

Summary of Lessons Observed 

Classroom lessons 2 Laboratory lessons 5 

Subjects Classroom Laboratory 

Clothing 3 

Textiles 1 

Millinery 1 

Cooking 1 

Dietetics 1 

2 5 

Topics of Lessons 

Clothing — Covering buttons Millinery — C onstruction of hat- 
Making a buttonhole frames 
Finishing dresses Cookery — Making com bread 

Textiles — Characteristics of light Dietetics — Daily requirements of the 

fabrics body 

282 



Number of pupils 
in attendance 


Junior 


Senior 


Total 


8 
12 
15 


2 
1 
3 



1 



2 
2 

3 



Aims of Lessons 
To systematize the process of button covering 
To make systematic record of common textiles 
To finish dresses 

To learn the methods of lining a buttonhole 
To learn the process of making and using base frames 
To make corn bread 
To determine caloric excess or deficiency in each pupil 's diet 

Attitude of Pupils 
Orderly in all cases 

Portion of Class Kept Busy 
All in 6 cases; ^ in one case. 

Activity of Class 

Classroom Laboratory 

Active in questioning 2 

Active in contribution and questioning 1 1 

Not active mentally 1 2 



Oral 5 

None 2 

Given at end 5 

Time 1 minute or less 2 

Time 2 minutes 2 



Assignment 

Time 6 minutes 1 

Record by pupils 2 

Group assignment 4 

Individual assignment 1 



Text reading, 1; objective data, 4; problem growing out of lesson, 1; project, 

1; suggestive guidance given, 3 
Evidence of planning by teacher clear in all cases 
Careful preparation by teacher in all cases 
Preparation by class in 4 cases; none 3 cases 
System and unity evident in all cases 



Classroom Lessons 
Type — development in both cases 
Procedure — question and answer, both cases 
Concrete reference to pupils ' experience, 1 
Objective data in hands of pupils, 1 
Attention given to evaluation and organization, 2 
Attention given to organization, 1 

283 



Laboratory Lessons 

Type. — Project, 2; Exercise, 2; Practicum, 1 

Group teaching, 3; Individual teaching, 2 

Demonstration and practice, 2; Demonstration, suggestion, practice, 2 

Direction and practice, 1 

Attention given to: 
Process analysis, 1 
Process analysis and accuracy, 2 
Process analysis, accuracy, organization, 2 

Rating of Teachers by Surveyor: 
Superior teaching, 3 
Normally good teaching, 2 

Equipment 
In equipment of all sorts and in provision for practical experience 
in direct connection with instruction the State schools are much 
superior to the high schools. Of the pupils, nothing more can be 
said than that they are considerably more mature than average 
high school girls, and in the judgment of the surveyor in general of 
intelligent type. 



284 



CHAPTER XXI 

CURRICULA IN THE STATE SCHOOLS— 
AGRICULTURE 

THE curricula offered for agricultural students in five of the 
State schools, omitting from consideration the somewhat 
atypical school on Long Island in the suburban district of 
New York city, are summarized below. The organization of the 
"regular" curricula is based on a three-year program of six terms of 
twelve weeks each. The school year begins in October and ends in 
April, but pupils may enter at the beginning of the second term as 
well as of the first. The organization is planned to meet the needs 
of boys on farms, who must work till completion of harvest in fall, 
and begin the season's work with the opening of spring. It also 
enables the meeting of the farm practice requirements of law by 
assigning pupils to farm employment for six months in the intervals 
between the freshman and junior, and the junior and senior years of 
school instruction. 

Admission requirements to the three-year curriculum call for an 
age of sixteen years, completion of the work of eight grades in the 
elementary school, and acceptable physical and moral qualifica- 
tions. Graduates of high school courses in agriculture are admitted 
to junior standing only, in spite of the fact that they have had a 
decidedly greater amount of preparation in academic subjects than 
the maximum provided in any State school, and on the average 
have spent 20 percent more time in the study of agricultural sub- 
jects than the graduate of the State school. If the State schools are 
to serve such graduates without waste and duplication of effort, it 
would seem that senior standing with permission to specialize 
wholly in subjects other than those offered in the high school is 
desirable. In the same subjects the instruction in the State schools 
is, in the judgment of the surveyor, not superior to that offered in the 
high school. The advantage that the State schools offer to the high 
school graduate in agriculture lies in the more specialized electives. 

285 



The organization of the three-year course is founded upon com- 
mon requirements for all students in the first year, some group 
election in the second, and a rather large group differentiation in 
the third year. The unit of credit is the term hour of forty-five 
minutes' recitation, or 90 minutes' laboratory, daily per week for 
twelve weeks. The normal year's work requires the satisfactory 
completion of 46 term hours, with a range of from 46 to 51 in the 
five schools. Groupings of specialized subjects above the common 
requirements result in courses in agriculture for several groups of 

students as follows: 

Number of 
Course schools offering 

General agriculture 4 

Animal husbandry and dairying 5 

Horticulture 4 

Fruit growing 1 

Market gardening 1 

Poultry husbandry 5 

Dairy industry 1 

The degree of specialization permitted in such groupings is 
indicated by total requirements for all students in the several years 
of the course for the five schools. 



Total Requirements for All Students in Agriculture by Years 



Freshman year 
Junior year . . . 
Senior year .... 



46 


46 


46 


49 


44 


20>^ 


40M 


40 


37 


9 


18>^ 


33 



51 
45 
40 



In three of the schools, then, the range of differentiation for special 
purposes is small, except the student be capable of carrying more 
than the load normally necessary to graduation. 

Practically all the science, the English and mathematics, and the 
social science is to be found in the required list. One school pro- 
vides no history or civics, two no sociology of rural life, four no 
economics. What is offered in the way of the study of rural life 
problems is the very minimum. Music, a factor of no mean impor- 
tance in country living, is offered in only two schools. To the sur- 
veyor it appears that the curricula are generally weak in the develop- 
ment of the larger social, economic, and esthetic values implied in 
a successful country life. 

286 



The range in numbers of elective studies offered is as follows, by 
schools: 14, 16, 24, 26, 34. The kind, frequency, range in term 
hours, and representative or median case of such hours, are shown 
both for required and elective studies in the following tables: 

Required Subjects 



Subjects 



English 

Public speaking and parliamentary procedure 

American history 

Civics 

Economics 

Country life problems 

Commercial law 

Physical training 

First aid 

Elementary science 

Biology 

Elementary chemistry 

Physics and climatology 

Music 

Farm botany 

Agricultural chemistry 

Farm arithmetic 

Farm accounts 

Bacteriology (milk) 

Soils and crops 

Forage crops 

Special crops (forage) 

Vegetable gardening 

Home orchard and garden 

Fruit growing 

Forestry and grounds 

Plant diseases and insects 

Farm carpentry and drawing 

Forge work 

Farm machinery 

Water supply and sanitation 

Concrete construction 

Surveying and drainage 

Poultry 

Commercial poultry 

Incubation and brooding 

Chick raising 

Cattle and stock judging 

Dairy cattle 

Elementary dairy and testing 

Feeds and feeding 

Principles of breeding 

Horses, sheep, and swine 

Farm management 

287 



Number 


Range of 




schools 


term 
hours 


Median 


5 


8-12 


8 


5 


1-6 


5 


4 


5 


5 


4 


2-4 


3 


1 


6 


6 


3 


1-2 


1 


1 


3 


3 


4 


6-12 




1 


1 


1 


2 


3K-7>^ 




2 


5 


^ 


3 


4-8 


8 


1 


5 


5 


2 


2 


2 


3 


4-5 


5 


5 


3-10 


3 


5 


4-8 


4 


5 


1-3 


2 


2 


iK-5 




5 


6-10 


7 


1 


4 


4 


1 


4 


4 


1 


4 


4 


2 


2K-5 




4 


3-4 


4 


2 


lK-3 




2 


4-5 




5 


2-4 


3 


2 


2-4 




4 


2-4 


3 


1 


3 


3 


2 


2-3 




1 


2 


2 


5 


2K-3 


3 


1 


3K 


sy2 


1 


ly^ 


ly 


1 


2 


2 


4 


1-2 


1 


4 


2-4 


2 


5 


2-4 


2 


5 


3H-6 


4 


2 


3K-4 




3 


2-3 


2K 


4 


4-8 


6 



Required Subjects — {Continued) 



Subjects 



Farm management and rural law 

Advanced agricultural chemistry 

Soil fertility 

Special crops (farm) 

Diseases and insects 

Advanced farm crops 

Vegetable gardening 

Vegetable forcing 

Apple growing 

Orcharding 

Small fruits 

Fruit harvesting and marketing 

Floriculture and greenhouse management . 

Farm forestry 

Concrete work 

Forge work 

Woodwork 

Farm machinery 

Surveying, drainage, water supply 

History of breeds 

The horse 

Sheep and swine 

Stock judging 

Livestock management 

Veterinary science 

Feeds and feeding (advanced) 

Breeding 

Dairy cattle management 

Dairy demonstration 

Advanced testing 

Market milk and dairy bacteriology 

Butter and cheese 

Buttermaking 

Cheesemaking 

Creamery management 

Ice-cream making 

Advanced poultry 

Poultry breeds and breeding 

Poultry feeding 

Incubation and brooding 

Structure and diseases of poultry 

Poultry house construction 

Judging of poultry (utility) 

Advanced poultry judging 

Poultry practice 

Marketing poultry 

Poultry farm management 

Beekeeping 

Farm management 

Debating 

Typewriting 

288 



Number 
Schools 



Range of 
term 
hours 



5 
3 
lK-4 
2-5 

2y. 

2K-15 

2 

5 
2K-10 
iK-5 

2 
1-3 

i-vA 
2 
3 
iK-3 

3M 
3 

IM 
1-2 

4 
2K-3 

2-3K 
2K-5 
2-3 
lK-6 
3 

2-3 

2-3 

2 

2 

2-6 
1-3 

3 
2-3 

3 

3 

3 

6 

3 
2-3 
2-t 

1K-2K 

3K 

3 

1 



Median 



2y2 

'2 
5 



1 

2 

3 

2 

3K 
3 

ly 

"4 
3 



3 
2 
3 

3 
2 

2y 
2 



3 
3 
3 

6 
3 

2K 
3 

sy 

3 

1 



In addition to the three-year curricula the State schools offer 
winter short courses of eight, ten, or twelve weeks' duration, to 
which the admission qualifications are an age of sixteen years or 
more and ability to read and write. They consist in special group- 
ings of technical studies, with some practice on the school farm into 

the following courses : 

Number of schools 
Course ofifering 

Animal husbandry and dairying 4 

Horticulture 4 

Poultry husbandry 4 

Dairy industry 1 

Ice-cream making 1 

These courses are placed in the winter months at a time when 
farmers and employed workers can most conveniently leave home 
for instruction. In addition the staff is largely engaged during the 
summer months in junior and adult extension teaching in agricul- 
ture. 



289 



CHAPTER XXII 



HOMEMAKING CURRICULA IN THE STATE 
SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE 



T 



HE same five schools as reported for agriculture are included 
in the report on homemaking. 

Regular Courses Offered 



Name of course 


Number 
of schools 


Admission 
standards 


Length of 
course 


Homemaker's course. . 

Homemaker's course. . 

Homemaker's course. . 

Homemaker's course . . 

Normal course in 
homemaking 

Trades course in home- 
making 

Advanced course in 
home-making 


1 
1 
2 

1 

2 
1 
1 


16 yrs. 2 yrs. H. S. 
16 yrs. 2 yrs. H. S. 
16 yrs. Grade VIII 
16 yrs. Grade VIII 

16 yrs. 2 yrs. H. S. 

17 yrs. 

Grad. 2 yrs. course 


1 yr. 34 weeks 

2 yrs. 34 " 
2 " 34 " 
2 " 30 " 

2 " 34 " 

1 yr. 34 " 

12 " 



In one school high school graduates are given one year's credit in 
admission to the two-year course, other than the Normal Course. 
Pupils may enter in the second term of the junior year. 

In addition a short course of eight weeks is offered and the time 
of the staff is given to considerable extension work of the junior and 
adult type. 

One- Year Course for Homemakers 
All Subjects Required 



Subject Term hours 

Civics and English 4 

Physical training 4 

Hygiene and physiology 2 

Elementary sewing 2^ 

Dressmaking 3 

Textiles VA 

MiUinery 1 

Laundering lyi 



Subject Term hours 

Handwork and design 3^ 

Elementary cooking 2>^ 

Advanced cookery 2>^ 

Dietetics and invalid cookery. . . \}4 

Housewifery 2 

Home nursing and first aid 2 

Household management 2 



290 



The course in very small measure attempts to do the work of the 
high school in academic subjects. It is lacking in emphasis upon 
the scientific and social implications of homemaking, but is quite 
comprehensive within the field of homemaking technique and 
technology. It is clearly and strictly vocational from the stand- 
point of subject content. 

Two- Year Course in Homemaking 

Required Subjects 

Number Range in 

Subject schools term hours 

English 4 6-10K-11-18 

ParUamentary procedure 3 2-3-7^ 

American history 2 5-12 

Civics 1 4 

Country life problems 1 2 

Music 2 2-6 

Arithmetic 1 4 

Physical training 4 2-3-3-12 

Botany 2 4-6 

Household physics 3 3-5-9 

Household chemistry 3 4>^-9-15 

Foods and cookery 4 11-15-15-24 

Dietetics 2 3-5 

Dietetics, sanitation, home nursing. . . 1 7)4 

Home nursing 3 4-6-9 

Household bacteriology and hygiene . . 2 4}4-6 

Laundry 2 1-1>2 

House practice 2 2-6 

Handwork 2 3-6 

Sewing 4 9-14-15-18 

Textiles 4 l>^-3-3-4>^ 

Dressmaking 1 3 

MiUinery 2 l>^-3 

House plans 1 2 

Drawing 1 3 

Household decoration 2 4-6 

Household management 4 3-3-3-7^ 

Landscape art 2 3-3 

Gardening 2 2-6 

Insects 1 3 

Psychology 1 9 

Approximately synonymous names for subjects have been placed 
together, and the term hours reduced to a common denominator. 
The range of differences in content, and particularly in emphasis, 
is large, but less in the technical subjects than appears, as some 
such subjects are not standardized in content and overlap variously. 

291 



Again, there is a distinct weakness on the side of social and eco- 
nomic science, and a marked disparity in the offerings in science. 
The differences in emphasis upon physical training is very large, 
but all schools include it for girls. The time devoted to sewing and 
cookery is doubled in the extremes. The technical subjects vary 
to make a difference in the extremes from the high school type of 
course to one that approaches the college in differentiation of sub- 
jects. On the whole, the technology is comprehensive. 



Elective SxtrDiES 

Number Range of 

Subject schools term hours 



Household chemistry. . . 

Food chemistry 

Psychology 

Advanced home nursing . 

Advanced dietetics 

Millinery 

Costume design 

Laundry 

Handwork 

Basketry 

Art needlework 

Physical training 

Farm mechanics 

Poultry 

The dairy room 

Farm buttermaking .... 
Small fruits 



12 
9 
6 
9 
3 

3 

3 
3 
3 
3 

3 
3 



Schools seldom agree in the matter of electives, and the range of 
offerings is small — 0, 3, 8, and 9. Though preparation for such 
vocations as millinery, dressmaking, nursing, etc., is an avowed 
by-product of all courses, yet opportunity to follow up a choice is 
small. The course is one primarily for homemakers. 

The Normal Course in Homemaking 
The normal course to prepare teachers of homemaking for ele- 
mentary schools, and previous to setting up new standards of 
qualifications in 1920 for high schools, differs from the two-year 
course described in the matter of entrance requirements, as already 
noted, and by the addition of the following subjects: 

292 



Number Term 

Subject schools hours 

Psychology 2 6-9 

Principles of pedagogy 2 3 

Methods in teaching homemaking 2 4>^ 

Practice teaching 2 3 

Trades Course in Homemaking 

The course is not outlined in the printed announcement, but is 
described as devoted to developing a high degree of proficiency in 
millinery and dressmaking. 

Advanced Course in Dressmaking and Design 

Subject Term hours 

Costume design 2 

Textiles 2 

Pattern modeling 2 

Advanced sewing 2 

Practical dressmaking 12 

What, from an examination, appears to be a typical example of a 
short course is offered below. The whole may be taken and com- 
pleted and a certificate awarded, or any part may be taken without 
certificate. A more intensive treatment of special phases is appro- 
priate to the best short course work. The attempt to boil down the 
content of the larger course to an eight or ten weeks' program is 
likely to mean that no one thing is learned well. Further, it is 
becoming fairly well understood that the average person enrolling 
for a short course knows what she is after and desires to give atten- 
tion chiefly to that thing. 

Short Course in Home Economics 

Subject Hours per week 

Cookery 3 

Food values 2 

Household management 2 

Home hygiene 2 

Sewing 2 

Millinery 2 

Home decoration 2 

The course is too short for a homemaking course and too com- 
prehensive for the development of particular home or trade efi5- 
ciency. 

293 



Volume I. 
Volume II. 



SURVEY OF NEW YORK STATE 
RURAL SCHOOLS 

1 HE survey was organized with the following sections 
and directors: 

Administration and Supervision. C. H. Judd. 

School Support. Harlan Updegraff. 

Teachers and Courses of Study. W. C. Bagley. 

School Buildings. J. E. Butterworth. 

Measuring the Work of the Schools. M. E. Haggerty. 

Community Relations. Mabel Carney. 

The results of the studies conducted by these directors 
and their associates have been embodied in a series of 
reports. The approximate dates at which these will be 
available for distribution are: 

Rural School Survey of New York State. 

(Preliminary Report) May, 1922. 
Administration and Supervision, October, 1922. 

The District System. Shelby. 

The Supervisory District. Brooks. 

The Community Unit. Works. 

Principles of Administration, Bobbitt. 

The State System of Examinations. Kruse. 

Health Education. Peterson. 

The State Schools of Agriculture. Holton. 

Junior Extension. Holton. 

Summary and Recommendations. Judd. 
School Support. Updegraff. August, 1922. 
Teachers and Teacher Preparation. Bagley. 
September, 1922. 

Elementary School Curriculum. Brim. 

Community Relations. Carney. 
School Buildings. Butterworth. June, 1922. 
The Educational Product. Haggerty. July, 1922. 
The Rural High Schools. Ferriss. August, 1922. 
(The administrative features of the high school 

were studied in cooperation with Dr. Judd, while 

teachers and curricula were developed under the 

general direction of Dr. Bagley.) 
Vocational Education. Eaton. July, 1922. 

(Prepared under the direction of Dr. Bagley.) 



Volume III. 
Volume IV. 



Volume V. 
Volume VI. 
Volume VII. 



Volume VIII. 



These volumes may be obtained at seventy-five cents each, post- 
paid, except Volume II, on Administration and Supervision, which 
will be one dollar. Only a limited edition will be printed and those 
wishing to make certain of securing copies may place their orders at 
any time. 

Joint Committee on Rural Schools, 
Ithaca, N. Y. 



